🔊Architectural Acoustics Unit 10 – Psychoacoustics: How We Perceive Sound

Fundamentals of Sound and Hearing

• Sound waves are mechanical vibrations that travel through a medium (air, water, solids) and are perceived by the human auditory system
• The human ear consists of three main parts: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear, each playing a crucial role in the process of hearing
• The outer ear collects and funnels sound waves into the ear canal, while the middle ear amplifies the sound vibrations and transmits them to the inner ear
• The inner ear contains the cochlea, a fluid-filled structure lined with hair cells that convert the mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
  • These electrical signals are then transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve for processing and interpretation
• Human hearing range spans from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz, with the most sensitive range being between 2 kHz and 5 kHz
• The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to measure sound pressure level (SPL), with 0 dB representing the threshold of human hearing and 120 dB being the threshold of pain
• The equal-loudness contours, known as Fletcher-Munson curves, illustrate how the perceived loudness of sounds varies with frequency at different SPLs

Loudness and Pitch Perception

• Loudness is the subjective perception of sound intensity, which is related to the physical sound pressure level (SPL) measured in decibels (dB)
• The human auditory system's sensitivity to loudness varies with frequency, as demonstrated by the equal-loudness contours (Fletcher-Munson curves)
• The phon is a unit of perceived loudness, with 1 phon being equal to a 1 dB SPL pure tone at 1 kHz
• Pitch is the subjective perception of sound frequency, which is determined by the rate of vibration of the sound source measured in Hertz (Hz)
  • The human auditory system can distinguish between different pitches based on the frequency content of the sound
• The mel scale is a psychoacoustic scale that relates perceived pitch to actual frequency, with 1000 mels corresponding to a 1 kHz tone
• The concept of critical bands explains how the human auditory system processes and analyzes sound frequencies in discrete frequency bands
• Loudness and pitch perception can be influenced by various factors, such as the duration of the sound, the presence of other sounds (masking), and the listener's age and hearing ability

Spatial Hearing and Localization

• Spatial hearing refers to the ability to perceive the location, distance, and direction of sound sources in three-dimensional space
• The human auditory system uses binaural cues, such as interaural time differences (ITDs) and interaural level differences (ILDs), to localize sound sources in the horizontal plane
  • ITDs are the differences in arrival time of a sound at the two ears, while ILDs are the differences in sound pressure level between the ears
• Spectral cues, which are frequency-dependent changes in the sound spectrum caused by the outer ear (pinna), help in localizing sound sources in the vertical plane and front-back disambiguation
• The precedence effect, also known as the Haas effect, describes how the auditory system prioritizes the first-arriving sound and suppresses later reflections, aiding in sound localization in reverberant environments
• The minimum audible angle (MAA) is the smallest angular separation between two sound sources that can be reliably detected by a listener
• Head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) characterize how sound is modified by the listener's head, torso, and outer ears before reaching the eardrums, and are used in virtual acoustics to create realistic 3D sound experiences
• Spatial hearing plays a crucial role in our ability to navigate and interact with the acoustic environment, as well as in separating and focusing on specific sound sources in complex auditory scenes

Masking and Auditory Scene Analysis

• Masking is the phenomenon where the presence of one sound (the masker) reduces the audibility or perception of another sound (the target)
• Simultaneous masking occurs when the masker and target sounds are present at the same time, while temporal masking (forward and backward masking) occurs when the masker precedes or follows the target sound
• The amount of masking depends on factors such as the frequency content, intensity, and temporal characteristics of the masker and target sounds
• Auditory scene analysis refers to the process by which the human auditory system organizes and interprets complex acoustic environments containing multiple sound sources
• The auditory system uses various cues, such as differences in frequency, intensity, timing, and spatial location, to group and segregate sound elements into distinct auditory streams
  • This process is guided by the principles of auditory grouping, such as proximity, similarity, continuity, and common fate
• The cocktail party effect demonstrates the human ability to focus on a particular sound source (e.g., a conversation) while filtering out other competing sounds in a noisy environment
• Auditory masking and scene analysis have important implications for the design of acoustic environments, as they influence the intelligibility, clarity, and perceived quality of sound

Psychoacoustic Metrics and Measurements

• Psychoacoustic metrics are objective measures that quantify various aspects of sound perception, such as loudness, sharpness, roughness, and fluctuation strength
• Loudness is measured using the sone scale, which is a linear perceptual scale where a doubling of the sone value corresponds to a doubling of the perceived loudness
• Sharpness is a measure of the high-frequency content of a sound and is expressed in acum, with higher values indicating a more pronounced perception of high frequencies
• Roughness describes the perception of rapid amplitude modulations in a sound and is measured in asper, with higher values corresponding to a rougher or more buzzing sound quality
• Fluctuation strength quantifies the perception of slower amplitude modulations (typically below 20 Hz) and is measured in vacil
• Tonality is a measure of the degree to which a sound is perceived as tonal or noisy, and is often expressed as a percentage or ratio
• Psychoacoustic metrics are commonly used in the automotive, consumer electronics, and aerospace industries to assess and optimize the perceived quality of sound
• Specialized software tools and measurement techniques, such as binaural recording and analysis, are employed to calculate psychoacoustic metrics from recorded or simulated sound samples

Room Acoustics and Sound Perception

• Room acoustics deals with how sound propagates, reflects, and is absorbed in enclosed spaces, and how these factors influence the perception of sound
• The acoustic properties of a room, such as its size, shape, and surface materials, determine the way sound is distributed and experienced by listeners
• Reverberation time (RT) is a key parameter in room acoustics, representing the time it takes for a sound to decay by 60 dB after the sound source has stopped
  • The optimal reverberation time depends on the intended use of the space (e.g., shorter RT for speech, longer RT for music)
• Early reflections, which arrive within the first 50-80 milliseconds after the direct sound, contribute to the perceived clarity, spaciousness, and envelopment of sound in a room
• Late reflections, arriving after the early reflections, influence the perceived reverberance and background noise level in a space
• The sound absorption coefficients of room surfaces determine how much sound energy is absorbed or reflected at different frequencies, affecting the overall acoustic character of the space
• The spatial distribution of sound in a room, including the direct-to-reverberant energy ratio and the lateral energy fraction, impacts the perceived source localization, intimacy, and immersion
• Room modes, which are standing waves that occur at specific frequencies determined by the room dimensions, can lead to uneven sound distribution and coloration if not properly controlled

Psychoacoustic Considerations in Architectural Design

• Psychoacoustic principles play a crucial role in the design of acoustically comfortable and functional spaces, such as concert halls, theaters, classrooms, and open-plan offices
• Speech intelligibility is a primary concern in spaces intended for verbal communication, and is influenced by factors such as the signal-to-noise ratio, reverberation time, and early reflections
• The desired musical experience in a concert hall or auditorium is shaped by the room's acoustic properties, including the reverberation time, early decay time (EDT), clarity index (C80), and lateral fraction (LF)
• In open-plan offices, the control of background noise, sound propagation, and speech privacy is essential for maintaining a productive and comfortable work environment
  • Measures such as sound absorption, sound masking, and the use of barriers and partitions can help mitigate the negative effects of noise and distraction
• The acoustic design of healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and clinics, must consider the need for a quiet and restful environment, as well as the privacy and confidentiality of patient information
• Classroom acoustics play a significant role in student learning and academic performance, with factors such as the signal-to-noise ratio, reverberation time, and speaker-listener distance impacting speech intelligibility and student engagement
• Psychoacoustic considerations should be integrated into the architectural design process from the early stages, in collaboration with acoustical consultants, to ensure the optimal acoustic performance of the built environment

Applications and Case Studies

• Concert halls and opera houses, such as the Vienna Musikverein and the Sydney Opera House, exemplify the application of psychoacoustic principles in creating world-class acoustic environments for musical performances
• The Philharmonie de Paris, designed by Jean Nouvel, employs innovative acoustic design solutions, such as adjustable sound reflectors and a modular seating layout, to adapt the hall's acoustics to different musical genres and configurations
• The Biosphere 2 project in Arizona demonstrates the importance of considering psychoacoustic factors in the design of unique and challenging environments, such as enclosed ecological systems and space habitats
• The Apple Park campus in Cupertino, California, showcases the integration of acoustic design in modern office environments, with features like sound-absorbing materials, noise-masking systems, and carefully planned spatial layouts to promote collaboration and focus
• The Maggie's Centres, a network of cancer care facilities in the United Kingdom, illustrate how psychoacoustic principles can be applied to create calming and supportive healthcare environments that promote well-being and healing
• The Fuji Kindergarten in Tokyo, Japan, designed by Tezuka Architects, incorporates acoustic considerations to create a lively and engaging learning environment that encourages interaction and exploration
• The Elbphilharmonie concert hall in Hamburg, Germany, designed by Herzog & de Meuron, showcases the integration of advanced acoustic simulation and measurement techniques in the design process to achieve optimal sound quality and distribution
• These case studies highlight the diverse range of applications for psychoacoustic principles in architectural design and the importance of considering sound perception in creating functional, comfortable, and engaging built environments