Glossary

The Inca civilization emerged in the Andean region of South America, becoming a vast empire. Their origins, political organization, and economic systems laid the groundwork for a complex society that would later encounter European explorers.

Inca culture was characterized by advanced engineering, intricate art, and a hierarchical social structure. Their religious beliefs, architectural achievements, and technological innovations shaped the pre-Columbian landscape encountered by Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century.

Origins of Inca civilization

  • The Inca civilization emerged in the Andean region of South America, which is a key area of focus in the archaeology of the Age of Exploration
  • Understanding the origins and development of the Inca empire provides important context for the later European encounters and conquests in the Americas

Andean precursors to Inca

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  • Various complex societies and states existed in the Andes prior to the Inca, such as the Moche, Nazca, Wari, and Tiwanaku cultures
  • These earlier civilizations laid the foundations for Andean agriculture, art, religion, and statecraft that the Inca later built upon
  • The Inca adopted and adapted many cultural elements from these precursors, such as the Wari labor tax system and the Tiwanaku sun god cult

Mythical vs historical foundations

  • Inca origin myths emphasize the divine mandate and supernatural powers of the Inca ruling dynasty, centered around the creator god and the mythical first Sapa Inca Manco Cápac
  • However, historical and archaeological evidence suggests a more gradual emergence of Inca state power through military conquests, alliances, and ideological claims
  • The Inca strategically intertwined mythical and historical narratives to legitimize their rule and create a sense of shared identity among the diverse peoples they conquered

Emergence of Inca state

  • The Inca began as a small ethnic group centered around their capital city of Cusco in the early 13th century CE
  • Under the leadership of capable and ambitious rulers like and Topa Inca, the Inca rapidly expanded their territory through conquest and diplomacy
  • Key factors in Inca state formation included strong centralized authority, efficient economic and administrative systems, and a powerful military

Inca imperial expansion

  • Inca imperial expansion was a defining feature of the Late Horizon period in Andean prehistory and had far-reaching impacts on the political, economic, and cultural landscape encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century
  • The Inca Empire, or Tawantinsuyu, stretched over 5,500 km along the western coast of South America at its height, encompassing a diverse array of environments and ethnicities

Military conquests of Inca

  • The Inca army, led by the Sapa Inca and his generals, was a formidable force that employed both offensive and defensive strategies in its campaigns of territorial expansion
  • Inca military tactics included siege warfare, pitched battles, and the use of specialized weapons like slings, clubs, and bolas
  • The Inca also used diplomacy, such as arranged marriages and incorporation of local elites, to consolidate conquered territories and reduce resistance

Strategies for territorial control

  • The Inca used various strategies to maintain control over their vast empire, including:
    1. Resettlement of conquered populations (mitmaqkuna) to break up traditional social units and prevent rebellion
    2. Imposition of Inca language (), religion, and cultural practices to create a sense of imperial unity
    3. Construction of an extensive road network () to facilitate communication, transportation, and military movement
    4. Establishment of provincial administrative centers (huamani) and appointment of local governors (toqrikoq) to oversee tribute collection and labor organization

Extent of Inca empire

  • At its apogee under Huayna Capac in the early 16th century, the Inca Empire encompassed an area of nearly 2 million square kilometers
  • The empire was divided into four administrative regions or suyus: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (south), and Cuntisuyu (west)
  • The Inca realm included a wide range of ecological zones and ethnic groups, from the coastal deserts to the high Andes to the Amazon rainforest
  • Major Inca centers outside the heartland included Quito (Ecuador), Cajamarca (Peru), and Tucumán (Argentina)

Inca political organization

  • The Inca political system was a highly centralized and hierarchical structure that enabled the Inca to effectively govern their expansive empire
  • Understanding Inca political organization is crucial for contextualizing the Spanish colonial encounter and the challenges of imposing European rule on indigenous societies

Role of Sapa Inca

  • The Sapa Inca was the supreme ruler of the Inca Empire, considered a divine king and descendant of the sun god
  • The Sapa Inca held absolute political, military, and religious authority, with the power to make laws, declare war, and dictate economic production
  • Succession to the Sapa Inca title was not always straightforward, with rival half-brothers and factions often vying for power (e.g., the civil war between Huáscar and )

Inca royal family

  • The Sapa Inca was supported by an extensive royal family () that held key positions in the imperial administration and military
  • Inca nobles (Inca-by-privilege) were granted land, labor, and tribute rights in exchange for their loyalty and service to the state
  • Marriage alliances between the Inca royal family and provincial elites helped to integrate conquered territories into the empire

Inca bureaucracy and officials

  • The Inca had a complex bureaucracy with various officials responsible for overseeing different aspects of imperial governance, such as:
    • Tocricoc: Provincial governors who collected tribute, organized labor, and maintained order
    • : Record-keepers who used knotted cords () to track economic data and population counts
    • : Relay messengers who carried official communications along the
    • : Chosen women who served as weavers, brewers, and ritual specialists in state-run institutions (acllawasi)

Inca economic system

  • The Inca economy was a centrally-planned system based on principles of reciprocity, redistribution, and collective labor
  • Examining the Inca economic system provides valuable insights into the organization of production, exchange, and labor in pre-Columbian Andean societies

Agricultural production in Inca empire

  • Agriculture was the foundation of the Inca economy, with a wide variety of crops cultivated in different ecological zones, such as maize, potatoes, quinoa, coca, and cotton
  • The Inca developed sophisticated agricultural technologies to maximize production, including , irrigation, and raised fields ()
  • Agricultural land was divided into three categories: state lands (tawantinsuyu), religious lands (intip churin), and community lands ()

Inca labor organization

  • The Inca used a labor tax system called mit'a to mobilize workers for state projects such as road construction, mining, and agricultural production
  • Mit'a labor was rotated among communities and could involve temporary resettlement (mitmaqkuna) to distant parts of the empire
  • Other forms of labor organization included communal work parties (ayni) and specialist guilds (camayoc) for crafts like metalworking and weaving

Tribute and redistribution

  • The Inca state extracted tribute from its subjects in the form of labor, goods, and military service
  • Tribute was stored in state warehouses () and redistributed to support the Inca nobility, army, and religious institutions
  • The Inca also engaged in ceremonial redistribution, such as the ritual feasting and gift-giving at state-sponsored festivals (e.g., )

Inca social structure

  • Inca society was hierarchically organized, with distinct social classes and expectations for individuals based on their gender, kinship, and occupation
  • Analyzing Inca social structure helps to shed light on the complex web of social identities and relationships that shaped daily life in the pre-Columbian Andes

Ayllu kinship system

  • The ayllu was the basic unit of Inca social organization, consisting of extended family groups that collectively owned and worked land
  • Ayllus were linked by common ancestry, shared resources, and reciprocal labor obligations (ayni)
  • The Inca state co-opted the ayllu system to organize tribute, labor, and military recruitment, while also using mitmaqkuna resettlement to break up traditional ayllu ties

Social hierarchy in Inca society

  • Inca society was divided into several main social classes:
    1. Sapa Inca and royal family (panaqa)
    2. Inca nobles and state officials (Inca-by-privilege)
    3. Local elites and leaders (kuraka)
    4. Commoners (hatun runa)
    5. Servants and retainers (yana)
  • Social mobility was possible through military achievement, specialized skills, and loyalty to the Inca state

Gender roles among Inca

  • Inca gender roles were complementary but hierarchical, with men and women having distinct spheres of activity and responsibility
  • Men typically engaged in agriculture, herding, warfare, and political leadership, while women were responsible for weaving, cooking, childcare, and household management
  • Elite Inca women, such as the Sapa Inca's principal wife (coya) and the chosen women (aclla), held important roles in Inca religion and statecraft

Inca religion and worldview

  • Religion was a central aspect of Inca life, permeating all levels of society and shaping political, economic, and cultural practices
  • Understanding Inca religion and worldview is essential for interpreting the symbolic and ideological dimensions of Inca material culture and the clash of cosmologies during the Spanish conquest

Inca pantheon of deities

  • The Inca worshipped a diverse pantheon of gods and spirits associated with natural forces, celestial bodies, and sacred places
  • Key Inca deities included:
    • Inti: The sun god and patron of the Inca royal dynasty
    • Viracocha: The creator god and culture hero who brought civilization to the Andes
    • : The earth mother goddess who presided over agriculture and fertility
    • : The thunder and weather god who controlled rain, hail, and lightning

Inca cosmology and mythology

  • Inca cosmology divided the universe into three realms: the upper world (Hanan Pacha), the earthly world (Kay Pacha), and the underworld (Ukhu Pacha)
  • Inca myths and legends, such as the origin story of Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo emerging from Lake Titicaca, served to legitimize Inca rule and explain the natural and social order
  • The Inca also venerated huacas, sacred objects or places imbued with spiritual power, such as mountains, springs, and mummies of ancestors

Religious rituals and ceremonies

  • Inca religion involved a complex calendar of rituals and ceremonies tied to the agricultural cycle and important political events
  • Major Inca festivals included:
    • Inti Raymi: The sun festival celebrated at the winter solstice, involving sacrifices, feasting, and ritual battles
    • Capac Raymi: The coming-of-age ceremony for Inca nobles, marking their transition to adulthood and entry into state service
    • Citua: The purification festival held at the autumnal equinox, aimed at driving out illness and evil spirits
  • Inca rituals often included offerings of food, drink, coca leaves, and precious objects, as well as animal and occasional human sacrifices (capacocha)

Inca art and architecture

  • Inca art and architecture served both practical and symbolic functions, expressing Inca power, religious beliefs, and aesthetic values
  • Examining Inca artistic and architectural traditions provides valuable insights into Inca technology, social organization, and cultural exchange in the pre-Columbian Andes

Characteristics of Inca art

  • Inca art is characterized by its geometric patterns, stylized figures, and use of high-value materials like gold, silver, and fine textiles
  • Common motifs in Inca art include the sun (Inti), the Andean cross (chakana), and the double-headed serpent (amaru)
  • Inca art often served religious or political purposes, such as the creation of ceremonial objects (e.g., chicha drinking vessels) or the decoration of elite clothing and architecture

Inca textiles and metalwork

  • Textiles were highly prized in Inca society, with fine cloth (cumbi) reserved for the Inca nobility and ritual use
  • Inca weavers, primarily women, used a variety of techniques (e.g., tapestry, embroidery) and materials (e.g., cotton, wool, feathers) to create intricate and colorful designs
  • Inca metalworkers, centered in the Chimú region, were renowned for their skill in working gold, silver, and copper into objects like jewelry, figurines, and ceremonial vessels

Monumental Inca architecture

  • Inca architecture is known for its monumental scale, precise stonework, and harmonious integration with the natural landscape
  • Key examples of Inca monumental architecture include:
    • : A massive fortified complex above Cusco, featuring zigzag walls and a circular sun temple
    • : A mountaintop citadel and retreat for Inca nobility, with terraced agriculture and fine masonry
    • Ollantaytambo: A royal estate and ceremonial center in the Sacred Valley, with a sun temple, agricultural terraces, and defensive walls
  • Inca architects used a variety of techniques, such as ashlar masonry, trapezoidal doorways, and the incorporation of natural rock outcrops, to create structures that were both aesthetically impressive and earthquake-resistant

Inca technology and engineering

  • The Inca developed a range of advanced technologies and engineering practices that enabled them to construct massive infrastructure projects, intensify agricultural production, and maintain control over their vast empire
  • Studying Inca technology and engineering provides critical context for understanding the material achievements and logistical challenges of pre-Columbian Andean civilization

Inca road system

  • The Inca built an extensive network of roads and trails (Qhapaq Ñan) that stretched over 40,000 km across the empire
  • The road system facilitated rapid communication, military movement, and economic exchange between different regions of the Inca realm
  • Inca roads featured various engineering innovations, such as , drainage systems, and rest stations (tambos) for travelers

Inca agricultural innovations

  • The Inca developed sophisticated agricultural technologies to maximize crop yields and adapt to the diverse environments of the Andes
  • Key Inca agricultural innovations included:
    • Terracing: The construction of stepped platforms on hillsides to create level planting surfaces, control erosion, and manage water flow
    • Raised fields (waru waru): The creation of elevated planting beds in wetland areas to improve drainage and soil fertility
    • Irrigation: The use of canals, aqueducts, and reservoirs to distribute water from mountain springs and streams to agricultural fields
  • The Inca also practiced crop rotation, intercropping, and the use of guano fertilizer to maintain soil productivity

Inca stonework and construction

  • Inca stonework is renowned for its precision, durability, and aesthetic beauty, with finely-fitted masonry that has endured for centuries
  • Inca stonemasons used a variety of tools and techniques, such as bronze chisels, hammerstones, and trial-and-error fitting, to shape and join stone blocks without mortar
  • Inca construction projects often involved the transportation and assembly of massive stone components, using ramps, rollers, and rope pulleys
  • The Inca also developed a standardized system of measurement (the Inca foot and fathom) and used scale models and templates to guide construction

Inca record-keeping and communication

  • The Inca developed various methods of record-keeping and communication to manage information, maintain social order, and preserve cultural knowledge in the absence of a written language
  • Examining Inca record-keeping and communication systems offers valuable insights into the ways in which pre-literate societies organized and transmitted data and ideas across time and space

Quipu knotted cords

  • The quipu was a device made of knotted cords used by the Inca to record numerical data and narrative information
  • Quipus consisted of a main cord with pendant strings of different colors, with knots tied at various positions to represent numbers and categories
  • Quipu record-keepers (quipucamayoc) used quipus to track census data, tribute accounts, and historical events, with information encoded through a combination of knot position, cord color, and cord spacing

Inca oral traditions

  • In the absence of writing, the Inca relied heavily on oral traditions to preserve and transmit cultural knowledge, historical narratives, and religious beliefs
  • Inca oral traditions included songs, poems, and stories that were memorized and performed by specialized bards and storytellers
  • The Inca also used mnemonic devices, such as the ceque system of ritual lines radiating from Cusco, to organize and remember sacred geography and calendrical information

Inca language and dialects

  • The primary language of the Inca Empire was Quechua, which served as a lingua franca for communication across the diverse regions and ethnic groups of the Inca realm
  • The Inca also spoke a variety of local languages and dialects, such as and Puquina, which reflected the linguistic

Key Terms to Review (30)

Acllas: Acllas were selected women in the Inca civilization, often referred to as 'Chosen Women,' who were dedicated to the sun god Inti and lived in temples known as acllawasi. These women played significant roles in religious ceremonies, weaving, and producing textiles, which were highly valued in Inca society. The acllas were considered vital to the state’s religious and economic systems, reflecting the importance of women in the Inca culture.
Atahualpa: Atahualpa was the last sovereign emperor of the Inca Empire before its conquest by the Spanish. His reign marked a significant moment in Inca history, characterized by political intrigue and warfare, particularly his conflict with his half-brother Huáscar for control of the empire. His eventual capture and execution by Spanish conquistadors epitomized the dramatic downfall of one of South America's most advanced civilizations.
Ayllu: An ayllu is a traditional form of community and social organization in the Inca civilization, often based on kinship and shared resources. These groups played a crucial role in the economic and agricultural systems of the Incas, providing a means of collective farming and resource distribution, which helped sustain their vast empire.
Aymara: The Aymara are an indigenous people primarily found in the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia, Peru, and Chile. They have a rich cultural heritage that includes distinct language, social practices, and agricultural techniques, which were significantly influenced by the ancient Inca civilization. The Aymara's interactions with the Incas shaped their identity and contributed to the agricultural advancements and social structures that characterized the Inca Empire.
Chasqui: A chasqui was a specialized runner in the Inca civilization, responsible for carrying messages and important goods across vast distances along the extensive network of roads. These agile and trained messengers played a critical role in maintaining communication and administrative efficiency within the Inca Empire, which spanned diverse terrains from mountains to coastlines.
Excavation: Excavation is the process of systematically uncovering artifacts and features from the ground through careful digging and analysis. This practice is crucial for archaeologists as it allows them to reveal and understand past human activities, cultures, and settlements, often providing invaluable insights into history.
Illapa: Illapa is the Inca god of rain, thunder, and war, representing an important aspect of the Inca religion and worldview. This deity was central to agricultural practices, as the Incas relied heavily on rain for their crops, making illapa a significant figure in rituals and offerings. Illapa was often depicted as a warrior and was believed to wield powerful forces of nature, embodying both the nurturing and destructive aspects of weather.
Inca agriculture: Inca agriculture refers to the sophisticated farming practices and techniques developed by the Inca civilization, which thrived in the Andean region of South America from the 15th to the early 16th century. This agricultural system was crucial for sustaining the large population of the empire, utilizing advanced methods such as terrace farming, irrigation, and crop diversification to adapt to the diverse climates and altitudes of their territory.
Inca pottery: Inca pottery refers to the ceramic artifacts produced by the Inca civilization, known for their diverse forms, intricate designs, and functional uses. This pottery was often made from locally sourced clay and decorated with colorful glazes, depicting scenes of daily life, animals, and religious symbols. The craftsmanship of Inca pottery not only showcases artistic expression but also reflects the social, political, and economic aspects of the Inca society.
Inca Road System: The Inca Road System was an extensive network of roads built by the Inca Empire, connecting various regions and facilitating communication, trade, and military movement across the diverse Andean geography. This engineering marvel spanned over 25,000 miles and included bridges, tunnels, and rest stops, showcasing the Inca's advanced knowledge of construction and their ability to manage such a vast territory.
Inca Sun Worship: Inca Sun Worship refers to the religious practices and beliefs centered around the reverence of Inti, the sun god, who was considered the most important deity in the Inca pantheon. This worship was integral to the Inca civilization, influencing their agriculture, architecture, and social structure, as they viewed Inti as a giver of life and a source of prosperity.
Inti: Inti is the Inca sun god, revered as a central deity in the Inca religion and considered the ancestor of the Incas. Worshiped throughout the Inca Empire, Inti was associated with agriculture, prosperity, and life-giving sunlight, embodying the importance of the sun in sustaining civilization and society. The Inca people believed that their rulers were direct descendants of Inti, reinforcing the divine legitimacy of their authority.
Inti Raymi: Inti Raymi, also known as the Festival of the Sun, is a traditional Inca celebration held in honor of Inti, the sun god, symbolizing the importance of agriculture and the sun's role in providing life and fertility. This festival reflects the Inca civilization's deep connection to their agricultural calendar, as it marks the winter solstice and is intended to ensure a good harvest for the coming year.
Machu Picchu: Machu Picchu is an ancient Inca citadel located in the Andes Mountains of Peru, built in the 15th century and later abandoned during the Spanish Conquest. It serves as a significant symbol of Inca civilization and showcases advanced agricultural, architectural, and engineering techniques. This site became well-known globally due to its discovery in the early 20th century and has since been a focal point for discussions about the Spanish conquest, archaeological research, and metallurgical practices of the Inca people.
Mit'a: Mit'a refers to a labor system used by the Inca civilization that required citizens to contribute a certain amount of labor for public projects and state activities. This system was essential for maintaining the vast infrastructure of the Inca Empire, including roads, agricultural terraces, and temples. Mit'a helped foster a sense of community as everyone participated in civic duties, while also supporting the empire’s extensive administrative and agricultural needs.
Pachacuti: Pachacuti was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire, reigning from 1438 to 1471, and is credited with transforming the Inca state from a small kingdom into a powerful empire. He implemented significant reforms, expanded territorial boundaries through military conquests, and established a centralized administrative system that laid the groundwork for the future expansion of the Inca civilization.
Pachamama: Pachamama is a revered goddess in the Andean culture, particularly among the indigenous peoples of the region, symbolizing Mother Earth and the fertility of the land. She is considered a vital force in agriculture and nature, embodying the connection between humans and their environment. The worship of Pachamama reflects the deep respect for nature and the belief in the sacredness of the earth, influencing agricultural practices, rituals, and societal values.
Panaqa: Panaqa refers to the royal lineage or the descendants of the Inca emperors, particularly in the context of the Inca civilization. This term is closely associated with the social and political structure of the Incas, highlighting the importance of lineage in maintaining power and influence. The panaqa played a crucial role in governance and inheritance, as the Incas believed that royal blood held divine significance, which further established their authority over the vast empire.
Qhapaq ñan: The qhapaq ñan, or 'Inca Road', was an extensive network of roads and trails built by the Inca Empire that connected various regions across the Andes mountains. This engineering marvel allowed for efficient transportation of people, goods, and information, facilitating trade and communication throughout the vast empire and demonstrating the Incas' advanced knowledge of infrastructure and logistics.
Qollqa: Qollqa refers to the storage structures used by the Inca civilization for preserving agricultural products, especially in high-altitude regions. These buildings were essential for maintaining food security, allowing the Incas to manage surplus production and ensure that communities had access to food during times of scarcity or harsh weather conditions.
Quechua: Quechua refers to both an indigenous group of people in the Andes region and the language they speak. This language is an important cultural aspect of the Inca civilization and is still spoken by millions today. Quechua played a significant role in shaping the identity and culture of the Andean people, especially during and after the conquest led by figures like Francisco Pizarro.
Quipu: Quipu, also known as khipu, is an ancient Inca device made of colored strings and knots used for recording information. It served as a method of communication and record-keeping, essential for managing the vast Inca Empire, which had no written language. Quipus were used to track data such as census information, tribute obligations, and agricultural production.
Quipucamayoc: A quipucamayoc was a specialized official in the Inca civilization responsible for managing and interpreting quipu, which were intricate systems of knotted strings used for record-keeping and communication. This role was vital for the administration of the vast Inca Empire, as quipus contained important information related to census data, tribute collections, and other administrative tasks. The quipucamayoc's skills were crucial in ensuring that the empire's complex bureaucratic systems operated effectively.
Remote sensing: Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about an object or area from a distance, typically using satellite or aerial imagery. This technique allows archaeologists to detect and analyze features that may not be visible to the naked eye, aiding in the identification of sites and understanding past human activities.
Sacsayhuamán: Sacsayhuamán is an ancient Inca archaeological site located on the outskirts of Cusco, Peru, known for its impressive dry-stone construction and its significance as a ceremonial and military complex. This site demonstrates the engineering skills of the Inca civilization, showcasing massive stones fitted together with remarkable precision without the use of mortar. Sacsayhuamán reflects the Incas' architectural prowess and their ability to integrate religious practices into their urban landscapes.
Suspension bridges: Suspension bridges are a type of bridge that uses cables suspended between towers to hold up the bridge deck. This design allows for long spans and flexibility, making them ideal for crossing wide bodies of water or deep valleys. The Inca civilization is known for its innovative use of suspension bridges, showcasing their advanced engineering skills and ability to adapt to the challenging mountainous terrain of the Andes.
Terracing: Terracing is an agricultural practice that involves creating stepped levels on hilly or mountainous terrain to enhance farming efficiency and prevent soil erosion. This technique allows for better water retention and nutrient management, making it possible to cultivate crops in areas that would otherwise be unsuitable for agriculture. Its application has been notably significant in various societies, where adapting to diverse landscapes has been crucial for sustaining agricultural productivity.
Tocricoq: Tocricoq refers to a traditional Inca agricultural practice characterized by the construction of raised agricultural beds, which enhanced crop production in the harsh Andean environment. This method allowed the Incas to create microclimates, manage irrigation effectively, and maximize the productivity of their farmland.
Viracocha: Viracocha is the creator god in Inca mythology, regarded as the supreme deity and the source of all things. This god is often depicted as a bearded man who emerged from Lake Titicaca and is credited with creating the world, the stars, and humanity, showcasing the deep spiritual and cultural significance of religion in Inca civilization.
Waru waru: Waru waru is an ancient agricultural technique used by the Andean cultures, particularly by the Inca civilization, that involves the creation of raised fields with water channels between them. This innovative method not only improved drainage and reduced erosion but also allowed for better crop yields in the challenging Andean environment. Waru waru exemplifies the Inca's advanced understanding of their landscape and showcases their agricultural ingenuity.
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