13.2 Material culture and resistance in enslaved communities
2 min read•august 9, 2024
Enslaved communities used everyday objects as tools of resistance against oppression. From repurposed to , these items allowed people to maintain cultural identity and practice spirituality in secret.
Archaeological evidence reveals how enslaved individuals found ways to defy their captors. , , and show the ingenuity and resilience of those fighting to preserve their humanity under brutal conditions.
Everyday Resistance Objects
Colonoware and Repurposed Items
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- Colonoware represented handmade pottery produced by enslaved Africans in the Americas
- Colonoware combined African pottery traditions with Native American and European influences
- Enslaved people repurposed European-made objects for their own uses and meanings
- Broken ceramics transformed into game pieces or tools for daily tasks
- Buttons and coins modified into personal charms or jewelry
Hidden Caches and Personal Adornment
- Hidden caches consisted of small collections of objects concealed from slaveholders
- Caches often contained items with spiritual or personal significance (cowrie shells, beads)
- Caches found beneath floorboards, in wall cavities, or buried near dwellings
- Personal adornment included handmade jewelry, modified clothing, and hairstyles
- Beads, shells, and other small objects incorporated into necklaces or bracelets
- Clothing altered with African-inspired patterns or hidden symbols
Spiritual and Community Practices
Spiritual Artifacts and Rituals
- contained objects believed to harness spiritual power
- Crystals, roots, and small figurines used in spiritual practices
- Marked pottery or carved items with symbols related to African religions
- Evidence of rituals found in archaeological contexts (burnt offerings, libations)
- Crossroads symbols incorporated into living spaces or personal items
Community Solidarity and Literacy
- included shared symbols or objects
- Clay pipes decorated with African motifs used in social gatherings
- Musical instruments (drums, banjos) preserved cultural traditions
- Literacy artifacts encompassed objects related to reading and writing
- Slate pencils and writing slates discovered in slave quarters
- Hidden books or newspapers indicated pursuit of forbidden knowledge
Tools of Defiance
Covert Resistance Strategies
- Resistance strategies involved subtle acts of defiance against slavery
- evidenced by deliberately broken tools or incomplete tasks
- Feigned illness demonstrated by medicinal objects in unexpected locations
- showed ability to navigate different cultural contexts
- Objects with double meanings used to communicate secretly (quilts, songs)
Weaponry and Escape Tools
- Weaponry included both improvised and purpose-made items for self-defense
- Sharpened farm tools repurposed as potential weapons
- Small knives or blades concealed in personal effects
- facilitated attempts to flee enslavement
- Forged passes or documents hidden among personal belongings
- Specialized clothing or footwear designed for long-distance travel
- Maps or navigational aids (stars, natural landmarks) used in escape planning
Key Terms to Review (25)
African American pottery: African American pottery refers to the traditional ceramic art forms created by African Americans, often using techniques and styles that have been passed down through generations. This pottery reflects cultural heritage, resourcefulness, and the resilience of enslaved communities, serving both functional purposes and as a means of artistic expression within a context of resistance against oppression.
Artifact analysis: Artifact analysis is the process of examining material remains from past societies to understand their culture, behaviors, and social dynamics. This method is fundamental in historical archaeology as it allows researchers to interpret the significance of artifacts within their historical context, revealing insights into trade, social interactions, and daily life.
Charles Orser: Charles Orser is a prominent archaeologist known for his work on the material culture of enslaved communities, particularly in the context of colonial America. His research highlights how material artifacts and daily practices served as forms of resistance against oppression and the preservation of cultural identity among enslaved individuals. Orser’s contributions help illuminate the complex ways enslaved people navigated their circumstances through the items they created and utilized in their lives.
Code-switching artifacts: Code-switching artifacts refer to material objects that embody the cultural blending and adaptations of enslaved individuals as they navigated different cultural contexts, particularly in colonial America. These artifacts serve as tangible evidence of the ways in which enslaved people communicated and expressed their identities through a mix of African traditions and European influences, showcasing resilience and resistance against the oppressive systems they faced.
Colonoware: Colonoware refers to a type of earthenware pottery produced by enslaved Africans and their descendants in colonial America, particularly from the 17th to the 19th centuries. This handmade pottery is significant as it reflects the blending of African and European cultural practices, often featuring unique designs and functions that catered to the needs of enslaved communities while also showcasing their creativity and resilience in the face of oppression.
Community solidarity markers: Community solidarity markers are material expressions or artifacts that signify a shared identity, culture, or resistance among members of a community, especially among enslaved individuals. These markers can take various forms, such as clothing, art, religious objects, or specific architectural styles, and serve to foster unity and collective identity in the face of oppression. They play a vital role in maintaining cultural traditions and resistance practices within marginalized communities.
Covert resistance strategies: Covert resistance strategies refer to subtle, often hidden forms of defiance employed by enslaved individuals to undermine the authority of their oppressors without direct confrontation. These strategies were crucial for maintaining a sense of agency and identity among enslaved communities, as they often involved everyday actions that might seem innocuous but served to challenge the oppressive system.
Cultural Hybridity: Cultural hybridity refers to the blending of different cultural influences, resulting in new, dynamic forms of expression and identity. This concept is particularly significant in understanding how enslaved communities navigated their own cultural identities while also absorbing elements from European colonizers and Indigenous cultures. The resulting hybrid cultures showcased resilience, adaptation, and creativity in the face of oppression and forced change.
Cultural retention: Cultural retention refers to the preservation and continuation of cultural practices, beliefs, and traditions by a group, especially in the face of external pressures or influences. In the context of enslaved communities, cultural retention played a crucial role in maintaining a sense of identity and resilience despite the harsh realities of enslavement, as these communities adapted their heritage and traditions to create new expressions of their culture.
Escape tools: Escape tools refer to various items and strategies that enslaved individuals utilized to facilitate their escape from bondage, often playing a critical role in acts of resistance. These tools could range from physical implements like ropes and maps to symbolic items that carried meaning and significance within the enslaved community. Understanding escape tools highlights the resourcefulness and resilience of enslaved people in their quest for freedom.
Gullah Baskets: Gullah baskets are handmade woven creations, traditionally crafted by the Gullah people, descendants of enslaved Africans in the Lowcountry regions of South Carolina and Georgia. These baskets serve both practical and cultural purposes, reflecting the unique heritage and artistic expressions of the Gullah community. The intricate designs and techniques used in basket weaving are passed down through generations, highlighting a rich tradition that embodies resistance and resilience in the face of oppression.
Hidden caches: Hidden caches refer to secret or concealed storage areas where individuals, often in enslaved communities, would stash away items of personal or cultural significance. These caches could include food, tools, religious artifacts, or any other items that were valuable for survival or maintaining cultural identity, and they often represented a form of resistance against oppressive systems.
Improvised weaponry: Improvised weaponry refers to tools and objects that are not originally designed for combat but are adapted or utilized in a way to serve as weapons during conflict or resistance. This concept highlights the creativity and resourcefulness of individuals or groups facing oppression, particularly when conventional means of defense are unavailable or inaccessible. In many contexts, including enslaved communities, improvised weaponry becomes a critical element of resistance against domination and control.
Jacqueline Copeland: Jacqueline Copeland is a prominent scholar and researcher whose work focuses on the material culture of enslaved communities in Colonial America, particularly examining how enslaved people used everyday objects as forms of resistance and cultural expression. Her contributions highlight the significance of artifacts in understanding the lives and identities of enslaved individuals, showcasing their resilience and agency through their use of material culture. Copeland's studies emphasize that these objects were not merely functional but carried deep personal and communal meanings, serving as tools for resistance against oppression.
Literacy artifacts: Literacy artifacts refer to physical items that signify reading and writing practices, often reflecting the cultural and social contexts in which they were created and used. These artifacts include books, writing instruments, letters, and other materials that not only demonstrate literacy skills but also highlight the ways in which communities engaged with written language. In enslaved communities, literacy artifacts served as tools for resistance, empowerment, and cultural expression amidst oppressive systems.
Monticello: Monticello is the plantation estate of Thomas Jefferson, located in Virginia, and serves as a significant historical site that reflects both the architectural achievements of the third President of the United States and the complex realities of slavery in early America. This estate is not only known for its neoclassical architecture but also for the archaeological evidence of the slave quarters that reveal the lives of the enslaved individuals who worked there and their contributions to Jefferson's estate.
Nkisi bundles: Nkisi bundles are sacred objects in certain African traditions, particularly among the Kongo people, used for spiritual and medicinal purposes. These bundles often contain various items such as herbs, animal parts, and personal objects, believed to hold power and to serve as a medium between the spiritual and physical worlds. In the context of enslaved communities, nkisi bundles played a significant role in cultural resistance and identity preservation amidst oppression.
Personal adornment: Personal adornment refers to the practice of enhancing one's appearance through the use of accessories, clothing, or body modifications. This concept is deeply rooted in cultural expression and can signify status, identity, and individuality, particularly within marginalized or enslaved communities as a form of resistance and personal empowerment.
Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory is an analytical framework that examines the cultural, political, and social impacts of colonialism and imperialism on formerly colonized nations and peoples. It focuses on the ongoing effects of colonization, including identity formation, cultural representation, and power dynamics, while also emphasizing resistance and resilience among colonized societies.
Repurposed items: Repurposed items are objects that have been transformed from their original intended use to serve a new purpose. This practice often reflects creativity and resourcefulness, particularly in contexts where resources are scarce. In the context of material culture and resistance, repurposed items can become symbols of resilience, adaptation, and cultural expression among communities facing oppression.
Site excavation: Site excavation is the systematic process of uncovering and documenting artifacts, features, and ecofacts in an archaeological site through careful digging and analysis. This practice allows archaeologists to understand past human behavior, cultural practices, and the historical context of a specific location, connecting various elements such as trade, social structures, and material culture.
Spiritual artifacts: Spiritual artifacts are objects that hold religious or cultural significance, often reflecting the beliefs, practices, and identity of a community. These items can serve as symbols of faith, heritage, and resistance, particularly within enslaved communities where they represented not only a connection to African traditions but also a means to maintain cultural identity in the face of oppression. Spiritual artifacts often played a crucial role in rituals and practices that fostered community solidarity and resilience.
Stono Rebellion: The Stono Rebellion was a significant slave uprising that took place in September 1739 in South Carolina, where enslaved Africans revolted against their masters in a quest for freedom. This event highlighted the tensions between enslaved people and the plantation system, showcasing the growing desperation of slaves under harsh conditions and leading to stricter slave laws in the American colonies. It underscored the complex dynamics of race, power, and resistance within the context of colonial labor practices.
Subversive practices: Subversive practices refer to actions or behaviors intended to undermine or challenge established authority, particularly in oppressive systems. These practices can manifest in various forms, from subtle acts of defiance to more overt challenges, and play a significant role in expressing resistance against oppression, particularly within enslaved communities where material culture often served as a medium for such expressions.
Work slowdowns: Work slowdowns refer to deliberate reductions in work speed and productivity by enslaved individuals as a form of resistance against their oppressive labor conditions. This tactic was often employed to disrupt plantation operations, assert control over their own labor, and express dissatisfaction with their treatment. By slowing down their work, enslaved people could challenge the authority of their enslavers while minimizing the risk of violent repercussions.