9.3 Changes in material culture and religious practices
4 min read•august 8, 2024
The and brought major shifts in material culture and religious practices. Mosques became central to Islamic architecture, featuring distinct elements like mihrabs and minarets. The and emerged as significant religious sites.
Islamic art flourished, with advancements in , , , and . The Umayyad Caliphate expanded Islamic territory and developed centralized administration. Non-Muslim communities lived as dhimmis, while gradual conversion and processes reshaped society.
Islamic Religious Architecture
Mosque Design and Components
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The main mihrab, Umayyad Mosque, Damascus. | The main mihrab… | Flickr View original
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Minbar, Şakirin Mosque | The beautiful, elegant minbar is ma… | Flickr View original
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The main mihrab, Umayyad Mosque, Damascus. | The main mihrab… | Flickr View original
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- architecture developed distinct features and elements during the early Islamic period
- is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying
- is a pulpit in the mosque where the imam (prayer leader) stands to deliver sermons (khutbah)
- Mosques often incorporated a courtyard () for ablutions and prayer overflow, minarets for the call to prayer (adhan), and a dome over the prayer hall
Significant Early Islamic Religious Sites
- Dome of the Rock is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, built by Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE
- Oldest extant Islamic monument and a masterpiece of Islamic architecture
- Features a gold-plated dome, elaborate mosaics, and octagonal plan
- Al-Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, considered the third-holiest site in Islam after Mecca and Medina
- Originally built in 705 CE and has undergone several renovations and reconstructions
- Serves as a congregational mosque for Friday prayers and can accommodate over 5,000 worshippers
Islamic Art and Crafts
Pottery and Glassmaking
- Islamic pottery flourished during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, with centers of production in Iraq, Egypt, and Iran
- Techniques included glazing, slip-painting, and luster-painting
- Styles ranged from simple geometric designs to elaborate figural and calligraphic motifs
- Glass production reached new heights of sophistication and artistry in the Islamic world
- Techniques included glass-blowing, cutting, engraving, and enameling
- Products included mosque lamps, perfume bottles, and decorative vessels
Textiles and Decorative Arts
- Textile industry thrived under Islamic rule, with centers of production in Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Spain
- Techniques included silk weaving, tapestry, and embroidery
- Textiles featured geometric, floral, and calligraphic designs, often with symbolic meanings
- Other decorative arts flourished, such as metalwork (bronze, silver, and gold), woodwork, and ivory carving
- Objects ranged from practical items (bowls, plates, and furniture) to luxury goods (jewelry, mirrors, and chess sets)
- Decorative motifs often included , geometric patterns, and stylized plant and animal forms
Islamic Governance and Society
Umayyad Caliphate and Administration
- Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) was the first hereditary dynasty in Islamic history, ruling from Damascus
- Expanded Islamic territory to include North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia
- Developed a centralized administrative system, with a professional army and bureaucracy
- was introduced under the Umayyads, replacing Byzantine and Sasanian coins
- Early Islamic coins featured Arabic inscriptions and monotheistic messages
- Coins served as a means of political and religious propaganda, as well as facilitating trade and taxation
- became the official script of the Islamic state, replacing Greek, Persian, and Coptic in administrative and literary contexts
- Development of a distinctive Arabic calligraphic tradition, which adorned buildings, textiles, and manuscripts
- Spread of Arabic language and script facilitated cultural and intellectual exchange across the Islamic world
Non-Muslim Communities and Conversion
- refers to non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic state, primarily Christians and Jews, who were granted protected status in exchange for paying a special tax ()
- Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion, maintain their own courts and institutions, and participate in economic life
- Status of dhimmis varied across time and place, with periods of tolerance and persecution
- Jizya was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim adult males as a form of tribute and protection
- Jizya was one of the main sources of revenue for the Islamic state, along with land tax (kharaj) and booty from conquests
- Payment of jizya symbolized submission to Islamic rule and exemption from military service
- Conversion to Islam occurred gradually and unevenly across the Islamic world, with various incentives and disincentives
- Conversion offered social, economic, and political advantages, such as exemption from jizya, access to government positions, and integration into the Muslim community
- Some Christian and Jewish communities resisted conversion and maintained their distinct identities, while others assimilated or migrated to other regions
- Arabization refers to the process of linguistic and cultural assimilation of non-Arab populations in the Islamic world
- Spread of Arabic language through migration, intermarriage, education, and administration
- Adoption of Arab dress, names, and customs by local populations, particularly in urban centers
- Arabization did not necessarily entail conversion to Islam, as some Christian and Jewish communities retained their religion while adopting Arabic language and culture
Key Terms to Review (21)
Abbasid Period: The Abbasid Period refers to the era of the Abbasid Caliphate, which lasted from 750 to 1258 CE, marking a significant shift in Islamic history characterized by cultural, intellectual, and economic prosperity. This period saw the expansion of the Islamic empire, the establishment of Baghdad as a key center of learning and trade, and the flourishing of arts and sciences, profoundly influencing material culture and religious practices within the Muslim world.
Al-Aqsa Mosque: The Al-Aqsa Mosque is one of the holiest sites in Islam, located in the Old City of Jerusalem. It serves as a central place of worship for Muslims and holds significant historical and religious importance, especially in the context of early Islamic conquests, architectural developments, and the complex interactions between Islamic and Crusader forces in Jerusalem.
Arabic Calligraphy: Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting the Arabic script, which is characterized by its flowing forms and intricate designs. This form of art goes beyond mere writing; it embodies cultural expression, spiritual significance, and aesthetic beauty, reflecting changes in material culture and religious practices in the Islamic world.
Arabic Script: Arabic script is a writing system used for the Arabic language and several other languages in the Islamic world, characterized by its cursive style and right-to-left orientation. It has been influential in shaping the material culture and religious practices, particularly through its use in Islamic texts, calligraphy, and literature.
Arabization: Arabization refers to the process through which non-Arab communities adopt Arab culture, language, and identity, often influenced by political, social, or economic factors. This phenomenon became particularly prominent following the Islamic conquest, as the spread of Islam was accompanied by the diffusion of Arab culture and language across vast regions, leading to significant transformations in society and culture.
Decorative arts: Decorative arts refer to the design and creation of functional objects that are also aesthetically pleasing, such as ceramics, furniture, textiles, and metalwork. This field emphasizes the balance between beauty and utility, as these objects are often integral to everyday life while also serving as expressions of cultural identity and artistic expression. The decorative arts can reflect changes in material culture and religious practices through their evolving styles, techniques, and purposes across different time periods.
Dhimmi: Dhimmi refers to non-Muslims living in an Islamic state who are granted protection and certain rights in exchange for paying a tax known as the jizya. This status allowed dhimmis to practice their own religion and maintain their own religious institutions while living under Islamic rule, reflecting a complex relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims during the early Islamic period.
Dome of the Rock: The Dome of the Rock is an iconic Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, completed in 691 CE during the Umayyad Caliphate. It is one of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture and holds significant religious importance for Muslims, Jews, and Christians alike, representing a key moment in the cultural and religious landscape after the Islamic conquest.
Glassmaking: Glassmaking is the art and science of creating glass objects through the process of melting silica sand and other ingredients at high temperatures. This craft evolved over time, significantly influencing material culture and religious practices, as glass became a popular medium for various decorative and functional items.
Islamic coinage: Islamic coinage refers to the currency systems and coins used in the Islamic world, particularly from the 7th century onwards. It reflects the economic, political, and cultural developments of Islamic societies and is significant in understanding changes in material culture and religious practices throughout history.
Islamic Period: The Islamic Period refers to the era that began with the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE and continues to the present day, significantly influencing the cultures, societies, and religious practices in regions where Islam became dominant. This period is marked by profound changes in material culture, art, architecture, and religious practices, reflecting the integration of Islamic beliefs into daily life and governance.
Jizya: Jizya is a tax historically levied on non-Muslims living in an Islamic state, providing them protection and exemption from military service. This tax played a crucial role in the socio-economic structure of Islamic societies, fostering a system where religious minorities could coexist while contributing to the state’s economy. By imposing jizya, Muslim rulers sought to maintain order and acknowledge the contributions of non-Muslims within their realms.
Mihrab: A mihrab is a niche or alcove in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla, the direction of Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer. This architectural feature became significant during the Islamic conquest and early Islamic period as mosques began to take on distinct forms and functions, facilitating communal worship and religious identity. The design and ornamentation of mihrabs evolved, reflecting the artistic achievements of the Umayyad dynasty and influencing urban planning in newly established Islamic cities.
Minaret: A minaret is a tall, slender tower typically found adjacent to a mosque, serving both as a visual focal point and a platform from which the call to prayer (adhan) is announced. Minarets reflect the architectural styles and cultural influences of the Islamic world, playing a significant role in the spread of Islam during its early conquests, influencing urban planning in new Islamic cities, and transforming religious practices by providing a dedicated space for calling the faithful to prayer.
Minbar: A minbar is a raised platform or pulpit found in mosques where the imam delivers sermons, particularly during Friday prayers. It serves as a focal point for worshippers, symbolizing the authority of the imam and facilitating the communication of religious teachings to the congregation. The presence and design of minbars reflect changes in Islamic architecture and religious practices throughout history.
Mosque: A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam, serving as a community center where prayer, education, and social activities occur. It is characterized by its architectural features such as a minaret, dome, and prayer hall, reflecting both the spiritual and communal aspects of Islamic practices.
Pottery: Pottery refers to ceramic ware made by shaping and then firing a non-metallic mineral, such as clay, at high temperatures. This process transforms the clay into a durable material that can be used for a variety of functional and decorative purposes. In archaeological contexts, pottery is crucial for understanding ancient cultures, as it reflects technological innovations, trade relations, and social practices.
Sahn: A sahn is an open courtyard typically found in Islamic architecture, serving as a central space in religious and communal buildings like mosques. This architectural feature often plays a significant role in facilitating social interactions, worship practices, and rituals, reflecting the evolving cultural and religious landscape in historical contexts.
Textiles: Textiles are flexible materials made from interlacing fibers, which can be woven, knitted, or otherwise bonded together to create fabrics. In the context of changing material culture and religious practices, textiles play a crucial role as they reflect societal values, traditions, and technological advancements over time.
Umayyad Caliphate: The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates, ruling from 661 to 750 CE, and it marked a significant period of expansion and consolidation of Islamic rule across a vast territory. During this time, the Umayyads established Arabic as the administrative language, expanded trade networks, and facilitated cultural exchanges, which deeply influenced material culture and religious practices throughout the regions they governed.
Umayyad Period: The Umayyad Period refers to the era from 661 to 750 CE when the Umayyad dynasty ruled the Islamic Caliphate, expanding its territory significantly across North Africa and into parts of Europe and Central Asia. This period is marked by important developments in material culture, architecture, and religious practices that shaped the identity of early Islamic civilization.