🕯️Archaeology of the Holy Land Unit 4 – Iron Age: Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

Historical Context and Timeline

• Iron Age in the Levant lasted from approximately 1200 BCE to 586 BCE
• Divided into Iron Age I (1200-1000 BCE) and Iron Age II (1000-586 BCE)
  • Iron Age I characterized by collapse of Late Bronze Age city-states and rise of new polities
  • Iron Age II marked by emergence of kingdoms of Israel and Judah
• United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon in the 10th century BCE
• Kingdom divided into Israel (north) and Judah (south) around 930 BCE
• Assyrian conquest of Israel in 722 BCE
• Babylonian conquest of Judah and destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE

Key Archaeological Sites

• Megiddo, a strategically important city with over 20 layers of occupation
  • Solomon's stables and palaces from the 10th century BCE
  • Monumental six-chambered gate and water system from the 9th century BCE
• Hazor, one of the largest sites in the region with evidence of destruction by the Israelites
• Gezer, a city with a six-chambered gate similar to Megiddo and Hazor
• Lachish, a major city in Judah with a palace-fort and evidence of Assyrian and Babylonian destruction
• Jerusalem, the capital of Judah with remains of the City of David and the First Temple
• Samaria, the capital of Israel with a royal acropolis and impressive ivory inlays

Material Culture and Artifacts

• Pottery, including red-slipped and hand-burnished wares
  • Collared-rim jars associated with Israelite settlement
  • Lmlk seal impressions on jar handles indicating royal administration in Judah
• Metallurgy, with advancements in iron production and weaponry
• Inscriptions, such as the Tel Dan Stele mentioning the "House of David"
• Bullae (clay seal impressions) with names of biblical figures (Baruch, Jerahmeel)
• Iconography, including the Judahite Pillar Figurines possibly representing a goddess
• Ostraca (inscribed potsherds) with administrative and personal correspondence (Samaria, Arad)

Political Structures and Governance

• Transition from tribal society to centralized monarchy
• United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon in the 10th century BCE
  • Debate over historicity and extent of the United Monarchy
• Divided Monarchy with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
  • Israel had a more unstable succession of dynasties
  • Judah maintained the Davidic dynasty until the Babylonian conquest
• Royal administration evident in fortifications, palaces, and storage facilities
• Assyrian and Babylonian domination and influence on local governance

Religious Practices and Beliefs

• Monotheistic worship of Yahweh alongside polytheistic practices
  • Syncretism and influence from Canaanite religion
  • Reforms under kings Hezekiah and Josiah to centralize worship in Jerusalem
• Temple in Jerusalem as the center of religious life
  • Destruction of Solomon's Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BCE
• High places (bamot) and local shrines throughout the kingdoms
• Iconography and figurines possibly representing deities or religious practices (Asherah, Judahite Pillar Figurines)
• Prophetic activity and religious texts (early versions of biblical books)

Trade and Economic Systems

• Agriculture as the basis of the economy with crops like wheat, barley, grapes, and olives
• Pastoralism and livestock management (sheep, goats, cattle)
• Olive oil and wine production for local consumption and export
• Metallurgy and craftsmanship (pottery, textiles, jewelry)
• Trade routes connecting the Levant with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean
  • Via Maris coastal route and the King's Highway in Transjordan
  • Phoenician maritime trade and influence
• Tribute and taxation systems under Assyrian and Babylonian rule

Warfare and Fortifications

• Fortified cities with massive walls and gates (Megiddo, Hazor, Gezer)
• Siege warfare techniques and evidence of destruction layers
  • Assyrian siege ramps and battering rams
  • Lachish reliefs depicting Assyrian conquest of the city
• Weapons and armor, including iron swords, spearheads, and arrowheads
• Chariot warfare and horse breeding
• Mercenaries and alliances in military campaigns
• Assyrian and Babylonian military campaigns and deportations

Daily Life and Social Organization

• Patriarchal family structure with extended households
• Agricultural and pastoral activities as the basis of daily life
• Craftsmanship and specialized labor (potters, weavers, metalworkers)
• Social stratification with a ruling elite, officials, priests, and commoners
  • Evidence of wealth disparities in housing and burial practices
• Urban life in cities and towns with residential areas, public spaces, and markets
• Rural life in villages and farmsteads
• Literacy and education, primarily among the elite and scribal class
• Burial practices, including bench tombs, cave tombs, and pit graves