16.2 Excavation methods and stratigraphic analysis
3 min read•august 8, 2024
Excavation methods and stratigraphic analysis are key to unlocking the secrets of ancient sites in the Holy Land. Archaeologists use specialized tools and techniques to carefully uncover and document artifacts, features, and soil layers, piecing together the puzzle of past civilizations.
Understanding stratigraphy helps researchers determine the sequence of events at a site. By analyzing layers and using dating methods, archaeologists can reconstruct the timeline of human activity, from ancient settlements to more recent occupations.
Excavation Techniques
Troweling and Artifact Recovery
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- Troweling involves carefully removing soil layers using a flat, triangular tool () to expose artifacts and features without causing damage
- Excavators work methodically, following the natural contours of the soil strata to maintain the integrity of the archaeological
- Artifacts recovered during troweling are carefully documented, labeled, and bagged for further analysis
- In situ refers to artifacts or features found in their original position, undisturbed since their deposition
- In situ artifacts provide valuable information about the context and function of the area being excavated (cooking area, storage room)
Sifting and Documentation
- Sifting involves passing excavated soil through a wire mesh to recover small artifacts that may have been missed during troweling (beads, coins)
- Dry sifting is used in arid environments, while wet sifting is employed when the soil is damp or clay-like
- Artifacts found in the sieve are bagged and labeled with the appropriate context information ( number, date)
- Field notebooks are essential for documenting the excavation process, recording observations, and sketching features
- Excavators make detailed notes about soil color, texture, and any changes in the stratigraphy
- Field notebooks serve as a primary record of the excavation and are used to interpret the site's history and development
Stratigraphy and Dating
Understanding Stratigraphy
- Stratigraphy is the study of layering in archaeological deposits, focusing on the sequence and relationships between different strata
- Layers are formed by human activity, natural processes, or a combination of both, with newer layers typically deposited on top of older ones
- A locus is a distinct, identifiable unit within an excavation, such as a soil layer, feature, or architectural element (wall, floor)
- Loci are assigned unique numbers and are the basic units of archaeological recording and analysis
Dating Methods
- Relative dating establishes the chronological order of loci and artifacts based on their stratigraphic position and relationships
- The principle of superposition states that, in an undisturbed sequence, older layers are found beneath younger layers
- Absolute dating techniques provide specific dates or date ranges for artifacts and layers using scientific methods
- measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials (charcoal, bone)
- analyzes tree ring patterns to date wooden objects and establish a site's chronology
- The is a diagram that represents the stratigraphic relationships between loci in an excavation
- The matrix helps archaeologists visualize the sequence of events and phases of occupation at a site
Site Layout and Recording
Establishing a Grid System
- A is used to divide the site into manageable units for excavation and recording
- The site is typically divided into squares (5x5 meters or 10x10 meters) aligned with cardinal directions (North, East)
- Grid squares are identified by a unique alphanumeric code (A1, B2) to facilitate the precise recording of artifacts and features
- are the unexcavated strips of soil left between grid squares to maintain stratigraphic control and provide a visual reference for the site's profile
- Balks allow archaeologists to study the relationships between different areas of the site and create
Recording Techniques
- A is an artificial mound formed by the accumulation of debris from successive human occupations over time
- Tells are common in the Holy Land and often contain multiple layers of settlement remains (Megiddo, Hazor)
- Section drawings are scale illustrations of the stratigraphy visible in the balks or excavation walls
- These drawings show the sequence of layers, features, and any disturbances or intrusions
- Section drawings are annotated with locus numbers, elevations, and descriptions of the soil and features
- is a technique that uses overlapping photographs to create detailed 3D models of the site and its features
- Photogrammetry allows for accurate measurements, documentation, and visualization of the excavation progress
- 3D models can be used for research, conservation planning, and public outreach (virtual tours, educational resources)
Key Terms to Review (25)
Artifact cataloging: Artifact cataloging is the systematic process of recording and organizing information about artifacts discovered during archaeological excavations. This process involves creating detailed records that include descriptions, measurements, context, and provenance of each artifact, facilitating later analysis and interpretation. Effective artifact cataloging is essential for maintaining an accurate account of the findings and their significance within the broader archaeological framework.
Balks: Balks are vertical walls of unexcavated earth left in place during archaeological digs to help preserve stratigraphy and provide context for the layers of soil and artifacts. They act as a reference point for archaeologists, allowing them to study the relationships between different layers and understand how sites were built up over time. Balks also serve to protect the integrity of the site by preventing collapse and ensuring that stratigraphic information is not lost.
Context: Context refers to the circumstances and conditions surrounding a particular artifact, site, or event that help to determine its meaning and significance. Understanding context is crucial for interpreting archaeological findings as it encompasses various elements like spatial relationships, stratigraphic position, and cultural associations, which all contribute to the narrative of human activity over time.
Context sheet: A context sheet is a detailed document that provides essential information about the archaeological context of an excavation unit, including its stratigraphy, artifact types, and spatial relationships. It serves as a vital tool for recording observations and maintaining the integrity of data during excavations, ensuring that all findings are understood within their specific archaeological contexts.
Dendrochronology: Dendrochronology is the scientific method of dating tree rings to determine chronological dates for historical events and environmental changes. This technique utilizes the patterns of tree ring growth, which vary in width based on climatic conditions, to create a timeline that can provide insight into past ecological and archaeological contexts. By analyzing tree rings, researchers can also identify timber used in construction or artifacts, linking them to specific periods and providing evidence for cultural developments.
Field drawing: Field drawing is a method used in archaeology to create precise and detailed representations of excavation sites, artifacts, and stratigraphic layers directly in the field. This technique is crucial for recording data visually and accurately documenting the context of finds, which is essential for later analysis and interpretation.
Grid system: The grid system is a method used in archaeological excavation to organize and document the spatial relationships of artifacts and features within a site. This systematic approach involves dividing the excavation area into a series of smaller, uniform squares or grids, allowing archaeologists to meticulously record the depth and location of finds. The grid system enhances stratigraphic analysis by providing a clear framework for understanding the chronological sequence of layers and their interconnections.
Harris Matrix: The Harris Matrix is a visual representation used in archaeology to illustrate the stratigraphic relationships of various layers and features at a dig site. It provides a clear diagram that shows how different deposits, contexts, and artifacts relate to one another in a chronological sequence, aiding in the understanding of the site's history and formation processes.
Horizontal excavation: Horizontal excavation is an archaeological technique that involves digging laterally across a site to uncover and analyze the distribution of artifacts, features, and structures within a specific stratigraphic layer. This method contrasts with vertical excavation, focusing on exposing a broad area to understand how human activity and cultural practices manifested over time within a particular time frame. It is especially useful for studying site layout, patterns of occupation, and spatial relationships between artifacts.
Kathleen Kenyon: Kathleen Kenyon was a pioneering British archaeologist known for her significant contributions to the archaeology of the Holy Land, particularly her excavations at Jericho and Jerusalem. Her work not only advanced stratigraphic excavation techniques but also reshaped the understanding of ancient cultures in this region, particularly during the biblical period.
Locus: In archaeology, a locus refers to a specific location or context within a site where artifacts, features, or other archaeological materials are found. This term helps archaeologists to organize and document their findings systematically, allowing for precise analysis of spatial relationships and stratigraphy.
Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry is a technique that uses photography to obtain precise measurements and create detailed 3D models of objects or landscapes. This method is essential for accurately documenting archaeological sites, allowing researchers to capture spatial relationships and stratigraphic details without disturbing the site. By converting photographic images into quantitative data, photogrammetry enhances the recording and analysis of archaeological findings.
Post-depositional processes: Post-depositional processes refer to the events and transformations that occur to archaeological materials after they have been deposited in the ground. These processes can alter the original context and condition of artifacts and ecofacts, affecting their preservation and interpretation during excavation and analysis.
Radiocarbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14 isotopes. This technique has revolutionized archaeology by providing precise dates for artifacts and historical events, allowing for a deeper understanding of timelines and cultural transitions.
Screen: In archaeology, a screen is a tool used in the excavation process to separate artifacts and other materials from soil and debris. This method enhances the recovery of small finds and ecofacts, ensuring that significant archaeological data is not overlooked during excavation. Screens are integral to stratigraphic analysis as they help maintain the context of recovered items, allowing archaeologists to better understand the layers of occupation at a site.
Section drawings: Section drawings are detailed illustrations that depict vertical slices through archaeological sites, showing layers of soil, artifacts, and features in a clear and organized manner. These drawings are crucial for understanding the stratigraphy of a site, as they provide a visual representation of how different layers relate to one another, helping archaeologists interpret the chronological sequence of human activity.
Shovel: A shovel is a tool with a broad blade and typically a long handle, used for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials like soil, gravel, or sand. In archaeology, shovels are essential for excavation, allowing archaeologists to efficiently remove layers of earth while exposing artifacts and features crucial for stratigraphic analysis.
Sir Mortimer Wheeler: Sir Mortimer Wheeler was a prominent British archaeologist known for his contributions to archaeological excavation methods and stratigraphic analysis. He is particularly noted for introducing new techniques in excavation, emphasizing the importance of precise stratigraphy and meticulous recording of findings, which helped to establish modern archaeological practices.
Site formation theory: Site formation theory is a framework used in archaeology to understand the processes that affect the formation and preservation of archaeological sites. This includes both natural and cultural processes that occur over time, which can alter, preserve, or destroy evidence of past human activity. The theory helps archaeologists interpret how these factors influence the stratigraphy and the archaeological record at specific locations.
Stratigraphic excavation: Stratigraphic excavation is a method of archaeological excavation that focuses on the careful removal of soil and artifacts in layers, or strata, to understand the chronological sequence of human activity at a site. This technique emphasizes the relationship between different layers of soil and artifacts, allowing archaeologists to construct a timeline of past events and cultural developments. By analyzing these layers, researchers can gain insights into the site's history, settlement patterns, and the environmental conditions during different periods.
Stratum: A stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil that has distinct characteristics, formed through various geological processes over time. In archaeology, understanding stratification is crucial as it helps to establish a chronological sequence of human activity and environmental changes at a site. Each stratum represents a different period, allowing archaeologists to interpret the cultural and historical context of artifacts and features found within them.
Tell: A tell is an archaeological mound formed by the accumulation of human occupation over long periods of time, typically found in regions like the Near East. These mounds, which can be several meters high, are created from the debris of successive layers of habitation, making them key sites for understanding ancient settlements and cultures.
Test trenching: Test trenching is an archaeological excavation method where narrow, linear trenches are dug into the ground to assess the stratigraphy and potential presence of archaeological materials. This technique allows archaeologists to quickly evaluate a site, providing insights into the subsurface layers and helping to inform decisions about future excavations. By revealing stratigraphic relationships, test trenching can effectively determine the site's significance and historical context.
Trowel: A trowel is a small hand tool used in archaeology, characterized by a pointed, scoop-shaped blade and a handle. This essential tool is primarily utilized for careful excavation, allowing archaeologists to remove soil and uncover artifacts without causing damage. The design of the trowel facilitates precision work, making it vital for detailed stratigraphic analysis and understanding the layers of an archaeological site.
Vertical excavation: Vertical excavation is a method of archaeological digging that focuses on uncovering the stratigraphy of a site by removing soil and artifacts in layers, revealing the sequence of human activity over time. This technique allows archaeologists to establish a timeline of cultural and historical development, as each layer represents a different period or event in the site's history. Understanding the context of these layers is crucial for analyzing the relationships between artifacts and their chronological significance.