🧠AP Psychology Unit 9 – Social Psychology

Key Concepts and Theories

• Social psychology studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations and how they influence each other
• Attribution theory explains how people make inferences about the causes of their own and others' behaviors (fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias)
• Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that people experience discomfort when their attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, leading them to change one or the other to reduce the dissonance
• Social exchange theory suggests that people weigh the costs and benefits of social relationships and interactions, seeking to maximize rewards and minimize costs
• Mere exposure effect describes how repeated exposure to a stimulus can increase liking for that stimulus, even without conscious awareness
• Conformity refers to changing one's behavior to match the responses of others, often due to normative or informational social influence
• Obedience involves complying with the orders or requests of an authority figure, as demonstrated in Milgram's obedience experiments
  • Milgram's experiments showed that people are willing to obey authority figures even when it conflicts with their personal conscience

Social Cognition and Perception

• Social cognition refers to how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations
• Schemas are mental frameworks that organize and interpret information, influencing how people perceive and remember social information
• Priming occurs when exposure to a stimulus influences a person's response to a subsequent stimulus, often unconsciously
• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use to make quick judgments and decisions, such as the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic
  • Availability heuristic involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind
  • Representativeness heuristic involves judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a typical case
• Implicit biases are unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that can influence behavior and decision-making, even among people who consciously reject prejudice
• Impression formation is the process by which people form judgments and opinions about others based on available information, such as physical appearance, behavior, and social roles
• Nonverbal communication, such as facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice, plays a significant role in social perception and interaction

Attitudes and Behavior

• Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can influence behavior and be influenced by various factors, such as direct experience, social norms, and cognitive processes
• Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes refer to the thoughts, feelings, and actions associated with an attitude
• Persuasion is the process of changing attitudes through communication and social influence, often using central and peripheral routes to persuasion
  • Central route to persuasion involves carefully considering the arguments and evidence presented
  • Peripheral route to persuasion relies on cues unrelated to the message, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the source
• Elaboration likelihood model proposes that the effectiveness of persuasion depends on the level of motivation and ability to process the message
• Foot-in-the-door technique involves making a small request followed by a larger request, increasing the likelihood of compliance with the larger request
• Door-in-the-face technique starts with a large request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller request that appears more reasonable in comparison
• Cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude change when people modify their attitudes to align with their behavior or justify their actions

Group Dynamics and Influence

• Group dynamics refers to the interactions and processes that occur within and between groups, shaping individual behavior and group outcomes
• Social facilitation describes how the presence of others can enhance performance on simple or well-learned tasks but impair performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks
• Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone, as responsibility is diffused among group members
• Groupthink is a phenomenon in which the desire for group harmony and consensus leads to poor decision-making and a failure to consider alternative perspectives
• Group polarization refers to the tendency for group discussions to intensify initial attitudes and opinions, leading to more extreme positions
• Deindividuation is a state in which individuals lose their sense of self-awareness and personal responsibility when immersed in a group, potentially leading to disinhibited or antisocial behavior
• Leadership styles, such as authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, can influence group dynamics and outcomes
• Conformity and obedience pressures can be powerful influences on individual behavior within groups, as demonstrated by Asch's conformity experiments and Milgram's obedience studies

Interpersonal Relationships

• Interpersonal relationships are social connections and interactions between two or more people, characterized by varying levels of intimacy, commitment, and satisfaction
• Attachment styles, such as secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant, develop in early childhood and can influence adult relationships and social functioning
• Proximity and familiarity are important factors in the formation of interpersonal relationships, as people are more likely to form connections with those who are physically or psychologically close
• Similarity and complementarity can contribute to relationship satisfaction, as people are often attracted to others who share similar attitudes, values, and interests or who possess complementary traits
• Self-disclosure, or sharing personal information with others, plays a crucial role in developing intimacy and trust in relationships
• Social support from interpersonal relationships can buffer against stress and contribute to psychological well-being
• Conflict is a normal part of interpersonal relationships, and effective conflict resolution strategies, such as active listening and compromise, can help maintain healthy relationships
  • Active listening involves fully concentrating on and understanding the speaker's message, both verbally and nonverbally

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or biases toward individuals based on their membership in a particular group, while discrimination involves unfair treatment or actions based on these biases
• Stereotypes are oversimplified or generalized beliefs about the characteristics of a group, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination
• In-group favoritism and out-group bias describe the tendency to view one's own group more positively and to discriminate against members of other groups
• Realistic conflict theory proposes that competition for limited resources can lead to intergroup hostility and prejudice
• Social identity theory suggests that people derive a sense of self-esteem and belonging from their group memberships, which can contribute to in-group favoritism and out-group bias
• Implicit biases are unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that can influence behavior and decision-making, even among people who consciously reject prejudice
• Stereotype threat occurs when individuals fear confirming negative stereotypes about their group, which can lead to decreased performance and self-esteem
• Reducing prejudice and discrimination can involve strategies such as intergroup contact, perspective-taking, and education to challenge stereotypes and promote understanding

Research Methods in Social Psychology

• Social psychology research aims to understand and explain social behavior using scientific methods, such as experiments, surveys, and observations
• Experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable while controlling for other factors
  • Independent variables are the factors that are manipulated or changed by the researcher
  • Dependent variables are the outcomes or behaviors that are measured in response to the independent variables
• Surveys and questionnaires are used to gather self-reported data from participants about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
• Observational studies involve systematically watching and recording behavior in natural or controlled settings without direct manipulation of variables
• Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without inferring causation, as the variables are not manipulated by the researcher
• Sampling techniques, such as random sampling and stratified sampling, are used to select representative participants from a population
• Ethical considerations in social psychology research include informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing potential harm to participants
• Replication and meta-analysis are important for establishing the reliability and generalizability of research findings in social psychology

Real-World Applications

• Social psychology principles can be applied to various real-world contexts, such as education, health, politics, and the workplace
• In education, understanding social influences on learning and motivation can inform teaching strategies and classroom management techniques
• Health psychology applies social psychology concepts to promote healthy behaviors, such as exercise and diet, and to understand the social factors that influence health outcomes
• Political psychology examines the psychological processes underlying political attitudes, behavior, and decision-making, such as the role of emotions and cognitive biases in voter preferences
• In the workplace, social psychology can inform organizational behavior, leadership strategies, and conflict resolution approaches to improve employee satisfaction and productivity
• Social marketing campaigns use persuasion techniques and social influence principles to promote positive social change, such as encouraging recycling or discouraging smoking
• Forensic psychology applies social psychology concepts to legal and criminal justice issues, such as eyewitness testimony, jury decision-making, and offender rehabilitation
• Understanding the social psychological factors that contribute to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination can inform diversity and inclusion initiatives in various settings, such as schools and workplaces