🧠AP Psychology Unit 4 – Learning

Key Concepts in Learning

• Learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience
• Habituation occurs when an organism's response to a stimulus decreases after repeated exposure (loud noises)
• Sensitization happens when an organism's response to a stimulus increases after repeated exposure (drug tolerance)
  • Sensitization can lead to an exaggerated response to a stimulus over time
• Associative learning involves forming connections between stimuli or between a stimulus and a response
  • Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two forms of associative learning
• Non-associative learning involves a change in behavior without forming associations between stimuli or responses (habituation, sensitization)
• Latent learning occurs when learning is not immediately expressed in behavior but is stored for later use (spatial navigation)
• Insight learning involves solving problems through sudden understanding or realization rather than trial and error (Eureka moments)

Types of Learning

• Associative learning forms connections between stimuli or between a stimulus and a response
  • Classical conditioning involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response
  • Operant conditioning involves learning to associate a behavior with its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
• Non-associative learning involves a change in behavior without forming associations between stimuli or responses
  • Habituation decreases an organism's response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (ignoring background noise)
  • Sensitization increases an organism's response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (becoming more sensitive to a particular smell)
• Observational learning occurs by watching and imitating others' behaviors (learning social norms)
• Cognitive learning involves acquiring knowledge and understanding through mental processes such as thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving
• Latent learning is learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior but can be revealed later under certain conditions (navigating a maze)
• Insight learning involves solving problems through sudden understanding or realization rather than trial and error (solving puzzles)

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning (food)
• Unconditioned response (UR) is the natural, unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation)
• Neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response (bell)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) is the previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits a learned response (bell)
• Conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus, similar to the unconditioned response (salivation to bell)
• Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, where the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is formed
• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, causing the conditioned response to weaken and eventually disappear

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves learning to associate a behavior with its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
• Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future
  • Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (receiving praise)
  • Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (taking pain medication)
• Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future
  • Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (receiving a fine)
  • Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (losing privileges)
• Schedules of reinforcement determine the pattern and frequency of reinforcement delivery
  • Continuous reinforcement provides reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behavior
  • Partial reinforcement provides reinforcement only after some occurrences of the desired behavior (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval)
• Shaping is a technique that involves reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved (training a dog to perform tricks)

Observational Learning

• Observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, occurs by watching and imitating others' behaviors
• Attention is necessary for observational learning to occur; the observer must notice the behavior being modeled
• Retention involves storing the observed behavior in memory for later retrieval and reproduction
• Reproduction is the ability to perform the observed behavior, which may require practice and feedback
• Motivation determines whether the observer will actually perform the learned behavior, based on perceived rewards or punishments (imitating a celebrity's style)
• Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees a model being rewarded for a behavior, increasing the likelihood of the observer imitating that behavior
• Vicarious punishment occurs when an observer sees a model being punished for a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of the observer imitating that behavior
• Observational learning can lead to the rapid acquisition of complex behaviors and social norms (learning cultural traditions)

Cognitive Processes in Learning

• Cognitive processes involve mental activities such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving that contribute to learning
• Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing sensory information, which can influence what is learned and how it is remembered
• Attention is the process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others, which can affect learning by determining what information is processed
• Memory plays a crucial role in learning by encoding, storing, and retrieving information
  • Working memory holds and manipulates information for a short period (mental calculations)
  • Long-term memory stores information for an extended period, allowing for the retention and retrieval of learned material (remembering a childhood event)
• Metacognition is the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, which can help learners monitor and regulate their learning (study strategies)
• Transfer of learning occurs when knowledge or skills learned in one context are applied to a different context (using math skills in a science class)
• Cognitive strategies, such as elaboration, organization, and rehearsal, can enhance learning by making information more meaningful and easier to remember

Biological Factors in Learning

• The brain's plasticity, or ability to change and reorganize in response to experience, is essential for learning
• Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, play a role in learning and memory by modulating synaptic transmission (dopamine in reward-based learning)
• The hippocampus is a brain structure critical for the formation and consolidation of new memories, particularly declarative memories (remembering facts and events)
• The amygdala is involved in emotional learning and memory, such as fear conditioning (associating a specific stimulus with fear)
• Genetics can influence learning abilities and predispositions, with some individuals having a greater aptitude for certain types of learning (musical ability)
• Stress can affect learning and memory, with moderate levels of stress potentially enhancing learning, while excessive or chronic stress can impair cognitive functions
• Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, with certain stages of sleep (e.g., REM sleep) being particularly important for the processing and storage of learned information
• Nutrition and exercise can impact learning and cognitive performance by affecting brain health and function (omega-3 fatty acids, physical activity)

Applications of Learning Theories

• Educational settings apply learning theories to design effective teaching methods and create conducive learning environments (scaffolding, cooperative learning)
• Behavior modification techniques based on operant conditioning principles are used to change undesired behaviors and reinforce desired ones (token economies, behavior contracts)
• Exposure therapy, which is based on classical conditioning principles, is used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders by gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli (systematic desensitization)
• Observational learning principles are utilized in social skills training, where individuals learn appropriate behaviors by watching and imitating models (role-playing)
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) incorporates learning principles to help individuals identify and change maladaptive thoughts and behaviors (cognitive restructuring)
• Gamification applies learning principles, such as reinforcement and feedback, to engage users and promote desired behaviors in non-educational contexts (fitness apps, customer loyalty programs)
• Advertising and marketing strategies often rely on learning principles to influence consumer behavior and create brand associations (classical conditioning in commercials)
• Animal training, whether for pets, service animals, or entertainment, heavily relies on operant conditioning techniques to shape and reinforce desired behaviors (positive reinforcement training)