💶AP Macroeconomics Frequently Asked Questions

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Scarcity refers to the limited resources available to satisfy unlimited wants and needs
• Opportunity cost represents the next best alternative foregone when making a choice
  • Involves a trade-off between two options
  • Calculated by considering the value of the best alternative not chosen (attending college vs. working full-time)
• Comparative advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country
• Absolute advantage exists when a country can produce more of a good or service using fewer resources than another country
• Macroeconomics focuses on the economy as a whole, analyzing aggregate economic variables (GDP, inflation, unemployment)
• Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual economic agents (households, firms) and specific markets
• Positive economics deals with objective statements and facts about the economy ("what is")
• Normative economics involves subjective value judgments and opinions about the economy ("what ought to be")

Economic Models and Graphs

• Production possibilities curve (PPC) illustrates the maximum combinations of two goods an economy can produce given available resources and technology
  • Points on the curve represent efficient production
  • Points inside the curve indicate inefficient production or underutilization of resources
  • Points outside the curve are unattainable given current resources and technology
• Circular flow model depicts the flow of resources, goods and services, and money payments between households and firms in an economy
• Demand curve shows the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded, ceteris paribus
  • Downward-sloping due to the law of demand
  • Shifts in demand occur due to changes in determinants (income, preferences, prices of related goods)
• Supply curve illustrates the positive relationship between price and quantity supplied, ceteris paribus
  • Upward-sloping due to the law of supply
  • Shifts in supply result from changes in determinants (input prices, technology, expectations)
• Market equilibrium occurs at the intersection of the demand and supply curves, determining the equilibrium price and quantity
• Consumer surplus represents the difference between the maximum amount a consumer is willing to pay and the actual price paid
• Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum amount a producer is willing to accept and the actual price received

Supply and Demand Analysis

• Law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as the price of a good increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa
• Law of supply indicates that, ceteris paribus, as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied increases, and vice versa
• Determinants of demand include income, prices of related goods (substitutes and complements), preferences, expectations, and number of buyers
• Determinants of supply consist of input prices, technology, expectations, number of sellers, and government policies
• Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price
  • Elastic demand (|Ed| > 1) occurs when quantity demanded is highly responsive to price changes
  • Inelastic demand (|Ed| < 1) exists when quantity demanded is relatively unresponsive to price changes
  • Unitary elastic demand (|Ed| = 1) happens when the percentage change in quantity demanded equals the percentage change in price
• Income elasticity of demand gauges the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in income
  • Normal goods have positive income elasticity (quantity demanded increases as income rises)
  • Inferior goods have negative income elasticity (quantity demanded decreases as income rises)
• Cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded of one good to a change in the price of another good
  • Substitutes have positive cross-price elasticity (quantity demanded of one good increases as the price of the other rises)
  • Complements have negative cross-price elasticity (quantity demanded of one good decreases as the price of the other rises)

Measuring Economic Performance

• Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the total value of final goods and services produced within a country's borders in a given period
  • Nominal GDP is measured using current prices
  • Real GDP adjusts for inflation using a base year's prices
• Consumer price index (CPI) measures the average change in prices paid by urban consumers for a fixed basket of goods and services
  • Used to calculate the inflation rate
• Unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is jobless, actively seeking employment, and willing to work
  • Types of unemployment include frictional, structural, and cyclical
• Labor force participation rate represents the percentage of the adult population that is either employed or actively seeking employment
• Inflation occurs when there is a sustained increase in the general price level over time
  • Demand-pull inflation results from aggregate demand growing faster than aggregate supply
  • Cost-push inflation occurs when rising input prices lead to higher production costs and prices
• Business cycle refers to fluctuations in economic activity over time, characterized by periods of expansion and contraction
  • Phases include peak, recession, trough, and expansion
• Potential GDP is the maximum sustainable output an economy can produce when all resources are fully employed

Fiscal and Monetary Policy

• Fiscal policy involves the government's use of taxation and spending to influence economic activity
  • Expansionary fiscal policy (increasing spending or reducing taxes) stimulates aggregate demand during recessions
  • Contractionary fiscal policy (decreasing spending or raising taxes) reduces aggregate demand during inflationary periods
• Progressive tax system imposes higher tax rates on higher income levels (U.S. federal income tax)
• Proportional tax system applies the same tax rate across all income levels (flat tax)
• Regressive tax system imposes higher tax rates on lower income levels (sales tax)
• Monetary policy refers to the central bank's actions to control the money supply and interest rates to achieve macroeconomic goals
  • Expansionary monetary policy (increasing money supply or lowering interest rates) stimulates aggregate demand during recessions
  • Contractionary monetary policy (decreasing money supply or raising interest rates) reduces aggregate demand during inflationary periods
• Open market operations involve the central bank buying or selling government securities to change the money supply
• Reserve requirements set the minimum amount of reserves banks must hold against their deposits
• Discount rate is the interest rate the central bank charges on loans to commercial banks

International Trade and Finance

• Absolute advantage exists when a country can produce more of a good or service using fewer resources than another country
• Comparative advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country
  • Basis for specialization and trade
• Exports are goods and services produced domestically and sold to foreign buyers
• Imports are goods and services produced abroad and purchased by domestic consumers
• Trade balance is the difference between the value of a country's exports and imports
  • Trade surplus occurs when exports exceed imports
  • Trade deficit exists when imports exceed exports
• Exchange rate represents the price of one currency in terms of another
  • Appreciation is an increase in the value of a currency relative to another
  • Depreciation is a decrease in the value of a currency relative to another
• Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or raise revenue
• Quotas are quantitative limits on the amount of a good that can be imported
• Nontariff barriers include regulations, standards, and bureaucratic procedures that restrict or prevent imports

Common Misconceptions

• Confusing nominal and real GDP
  • Nominal GDP can increase due to inflation without any change in real output
  • Real GDP accounts for inflation and measures actual changes in output
• Assuming that a trade deficit is always harmful to an economy
  • Trade deficits can be a sign of strong economic growth and investment
  • Sustained trade deficits may be a concern if they lead to high foreign debt
• Believing that the government can always stimulate the economy through expansionary policies
  • Expansionary policies may be less effective if the economy is already at full employment
  • Excessive expansionary policies can lead to high inflation and economic instability
• Thinking that a strong currency is always better for an economy
  • A strong currency makes exports more expensive and imports cheaper, potentially hurting domestic industries
  • A weaker currency can boost exports and stimulate economic growth
• Confusing the budget deficit with the trade deficit
  • The budget deficit is the difference between government spending and revenue
  • The trade deficit is the difference between the value of imports and exports
• Assuming that low unemployment always indicates a healthy economy
  • Low unemployment may coexist with other issues (low productivity, high underemployment)
  • The quality and sustainability of jobs matter as much as the quantity

Exam Tips and Strategies

• Understand the key concepts and their relationships
  • Focus on the main ideas and how they connect to each other
  • Use concept maps or diagrams to visualize the relationships between concepts
• Practice graphing and interpreting economic models
  • Be able to identify and label the axes, curves, and key points on graphs
  • Explain the meaning and implications of shifts in curves and changes in equilibrium
• Apply economic principles to real-world scenarios
  • Look for opportunities to connect the concepts to current events or historical examples
  • Practice analyzing and predicting the effects of economic policies or shocks
• Manage your time effectively during the exam
  • Allocate time based on the number of questions and their point values
  • Answer the easier questions first and come back to the more challenging ones
• Read the questions carefully and identify the key information
  • Underline or highlight the important parts of the question
  • Determine what the question is asking and what concepts it is testing
• Eliminate incorrect answer choices in multiple-choice questions
  • Cross out the options that are clearly wrong or irrelevant
  • Choose the best answer from the remaining options
• Support your answers in free-response questions
  • Provide clear explanations and relevant examples
  • Use economic terminology and concepts accurately
• Review and check your work if time permits
  • Make sure you have answered all the questions
  • Double-check your calculations and graphs for accuracy