🖼AP Art History Unit 4 – Later European and American Art, 1750–1980 CE

Key Artistic Movements

• Neoclassicism emerged in the mid-18th century, drawing inspiration from classical antiquity and emphasizing rationality, order, and idealized beauty (Jacques-Louis David, Antonio Canova)
• Romanticism developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries as a reaction against Neoclassicism, prioritizing emotion, individualism, and the sublime in nature (Eugène Delacroix, J.M.W. Turner)
  • Romanticism celebrated the power of the imagination and the individual experience
  • Romantic artists often depicted dramatic landscapes, historical scenes, and exotic subjects
• Realism arose in the mid-19th century, focusing on the accurate, objective representation of contemporary life and social issues (Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet)
• Impressionism originated in the 1860s, emphasizing the capturing of fleeting moments, light effects, and everyday scenes through loose brushwork and bright colors (Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir)
  • Impressionists often painted outdoors (en plein air) to capture the changing qualities of light
  • They rejected the traditional rules of academic painting and embraced a more spontaneous approach
• Post-Impressionism developed in the 1880s and 1890s, building upon Impressionism but focusing on more expressive use of color, form, and symbolism (Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Paul Cézanne)
• Fauvism emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by bold, expressive colors and simplified forms (Henri Matisse, André Derain)
• Cubism, pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, revolutionized art in the early 20th century by breaking down forms into geometric shapes and multiple perspectives

Major Artists and Their Works

• Jacques-Louis David, a leading Neoclassical painter, known for works such as "Oath of the Horatii" (1784) and "Death of Marat" (1793)
• Francisco Goya, a Spanish artist who bridged Romanticism and Realism, famous for works like "The Third of May 1808" (1814) and his series of "Black Paintings" (1819-1823)
• Eugène Delacroix, a prominent Romantic painter, recognized for works such as "Liberty Leading the People" (1830) and "The Death of Sardanapalus" (1827)
• Gustave Courbet, a key figure in the Realist movement, known for paintings like "The Stone Breakers" (1849) and "A Burial at Ornans" (1849-1850)
• Claude Monet, a founding member of Impressionism, famous for his series of paintings depicting haystacks, water lilies, and the Rouen Cathedral
  • Monet's "Impression, Sunrise" (1872) gave the Impressionist movement its name
• Auguste Rodin, a influential sculptor who bridged Realism and Modernism, known for works such as "The Thinker" (1880) and "The Kiss" (1882)
• Vincent van Gogh, a Post-Impressionist painter, renowned for his expressive use of color and brushwork in works like "The Starry Night" (1889) and his series of self-portraits
• Pablo Picasso, a pioneering artist who co-founded Cubism and created groundbreaking works such as "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" (1907) and "Guernica" (1937)

Technological and Social Influences

• The Industrial Revolution led to the development of new pigments, such as cobalt blue and emerald green, expanding the artist's palette
• The invention of the metal paint tube in 1841 allowed artists to work more easily outdoors and capture the effects of natural light
  • This innovation contributed to the rise of Impressionism and plein air painting
• The development of photography in the mid-19th century challenged traditional notions of art and representation, influencing the rise of Realism and Impressionism
  • Some artists, like Degas, incorporated photographic elements into their compositions
• The growth of the middle class and the rise of the art market in the 19th century led to increased patronage and new opportunities for artists
• Social and political upheavals, such as the French Revolution and the revolutions of 1848, influenced artists' subject matter and themes
• The emergence of art criticism and the Salon system in the 19th century shaped public opinion and artists' careers
  • The Salon des Refusés in 1863 provided a platform for artists rejected by the official Paris Salon, including Manet and Whistler
• Advances in transportation and communication facilitated the spread of artistic ideas and styles across Europe and the United States

Stylistic Developments

• Neoclassicism emphasized linear precision, balanced composition, and idealized forms inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art
• Romanticism favored expressive brushwork, rich colors, and dramatic contrasts of light and shadow to convey emotion and atmosphere
• Realism focused on the truthful, objective representation of contemporary life, often depicting the working class and social issues
  • Realist artists rejected idealization in favor of unvarnished reality
• Impressionism introduced a lighter, more vibrant palette, loose brushwork, and an emphasis on capturing the transient effects of light and color
  • Impressionists often used broken brushstrokes and complementary colors to create a sense of visual harmony
• Post-Impressionism encompassed a range of individual styles that built upon Impressionism, such as Van Gogh's expressive brushwork, Gauguin's use of flat, decorative color, and Cézanne's structured forms
• Fauvism featured bold, non-naturalistic colors and simplified, expressive forms to convey emotion and personal experience
• Cubism introduced a revolutionary approach to representing form and space, breaking down objects into geometric planes and presenting multiple viewpoints simultaneously
  • Analytical Cubism (1907-1912) featured fragmented, monochromatic compositions
  • Synthetic Cubism (1912-1914) incorporated collage elements and a brighter palette

Themes and Subject Matter

• Neoclassical art often depicted moral and civic virtues, classical history and mythology, and idealized figures
• Romantic artists explored themes of nature, the sublime, individualism, and exoticism, as well as contemporary political events and personal emotions
• Realist painters focused on the everyday lives of ordinary people, social issues, and the working class, often with a critical or reformist intent
  • Courbet's "The Stone Breakers" (1849) and Millet's "The Gleaners" (1857) exemplify Realist themes of labor and rural life
• Impressionists celebrated modern life, leisure activities, and the changing effects of light in both urban and rural settings
  • Renoir's "Luncheon of the Boating Party" (1880-1881) captures the vibrant social atmosphere of Parisian cafes
• Post-Impressionists explored a range of subjects, from Van Gogh's emotive landscapes and self-portraits to Gauguin's depictions of Tahitian life and spirituality
• Fauvist works often featured landscapes, portraits, and still lifes with an emphasis on expressive color and simplified forms
• Cubist artists, such as Picasso and Braque, explored still lifes, portraits, and figurative subjects through the lens of fragmented, geometric forms and multiple perspectives
  • Picasso's "Guernica" (1937) addressed the horrors of war and political violence

Techniques and Materials

• Neoclassical artists favored smooth, polished surfaces, precise draftsmanship, and a limited palette emphasizing local colors
• Romantic painters employed expressive brushwork, rich colors, and dramatic contrasts of light and shadow to convey emotion and atmosphere
  • Delacroix's use of expressive brushstrokes and vivid colors exemplified the Romantic style
• Realist artists often worked with a muted palette and detailed, naturalistic rendering to capture the truth of their subjects
• Impressionists introduced innovative techniques such as broken brushstrokes, pure colors, and the use of complementary colors to capture the effects of light and atmosphere
  • Monet's series of haystacks and Rouen Cathedral demonstrated his mastery of capturing changing light conditions
• Post-Impressionists experimented with a range of techniques, from Van Gogh's thick, expressive brushwork to Seurat's pointillist dots of pure color
  • Cézanne's structured brushstrokes and geometric forms laid the foundation for Cubism
• Fauvists employed bold, expressive colors and simplified forms, often applied in flat, unmodulated planes
  • Matisse's "Woman with a Hat" (1905) exemplifies the Fauvist use of non-naturalistic color
• Cubists introduced collage, papier collé, and mixed media into their works, challenging traditional notions of painting and representation
  • Picasso and Braque's incorporation of newspaper clippings and other materials in their Synthetic Cubist works expanded the boundaries of art

Global Impact and Cross-Cultural Exchange

• The Neoclassical style spread throughout Europe and the United States, influencing architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts
• Romantic artists drew inspiration from the art and literature of non-Western cultures, such as the Middle East and North Africa
  • Delacroix's "Women of Algiers in Their Apartment" (1834) reflects the 19th-century fascination with Orientalism
• The Realist movement had a significant impact on the development of social realism and regionalism in American art
  • The Ashcan School in the United States, led by Robert Henri, drew inspiration from Realist principles
• Impressionism influenced artists around the world, from the American Impressionists to the Australian Heidelberg School
  • American artists like Mary Cassatt and John Singer Sargent adopted Impressionist techniques and subject matter
• Post-Impressionism had a far-reaching impact on the development of modern art, influencing movements such as Expressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism
  • Japanese ukiyo-e prints influenced the flat, decorative style of Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh and Gauguin
• Fauvism and Cubism had a significant impact on the development of abstract art and the rise of the avant-garde in the early 20th century
  • The 1913 Armory Show in New York introduced American audiences to Fauvist and Cubist works, sparking controversy and debate
• The influence of African and Oceanic art on artists like Picasso and Matisse contributed to the development of modernist primitivism and the appreciation of non-Western art forms

Critical Reception and Legacy

• Neoclassicism was initially well-received by the art establishment, seen as a return to order and reason after the excesses of the Rococo period
• Romanticism faced criticism from conservative critics who saw it as a rejection of classical ideals and a threat to social order
  • The works of Delacroix and Géricault were controversial for their emotional intensity and unconventional subject matter
• Realism sparked heated debates about the role of art in society and the appropriateness of depicting common, sometimes unsavory subjects
  • Courbet's "The Stone Breakers" and "A Burial at Ornans" challenged academic conventions and hierarchies
• Impressionism initially faced harsh criticism from the art establishment for its unconventional techniques and subject matter
  • The Impressionists' rejection of the Salon system and their independent exhibitions paved the way for the rise of the avant-garde
• Post-Impressionism laid the groundwork for the development of modernist art in the early 20th century
  • Van Gogh's expressive style and Cézanne's structural approach had a profound influence on future generations of artists
• Fauvism and Cubism were met with both enthusiasm and skepticism, seen as radical departures from traditional representation
  • The 1913 Armory Show in New York, which featured Fauvist and Cubist works, sparked public outcry and media attention
• The legacy of these movements can be seen in the continued exploration of abstraction, expressionism, and the avant-garde throughout the 20th century and beyond
  • The innovations of artists like Monet, Van Gogh, Matisse, and Picasso continue to inspire and influence contemporary art practice