4.3 African Americans and the Second World War: The Double V Campaign and the G.I. Bill

World War II marked a pivotal moment for African Americans. Over two million served in segregated units, facing discrimination but serving with distinction. The Tuskegee Airmen, the first Black pilots, flew over 15,000 sorties and helped pave the way for military desegregation.

The Double V Campaign emerged, fighting for victory against fascism abroad and racism at home. Meanwhile, the G.I. Bill offered veterans benefits like education and housing loans. However, discriminatory practices often prevented African Americans from accessing these opportunities, perpetuating inequality.

African Americans in WWII

Military service and segregation

• Over two million African Americans registered for the draft or voluntarily enlisted and served in every branch of the United States military during World War II
  • This was despite the fact that the United States Armed Forces remained segregated at the outset of the war
• African American soldiers served in segregated units, often under the command of white officers
  • They were frequently assigned to non-combat roles such as supply, maintenance, and transportation
• Notable segregated units included the 92nd Infantry Division (known as the "Buffalo Soldiers") and the 761st Tank Battalion (known as the "Black Panthers")
  • The 92nd Infantry Division saw combat in Italy and the 761st Tank Battalion fought in France and Germany
• African American soldiers faced discrimination and unequal treatment within the military
  • They were often given substandard equipment and facilities compared to their white counterparts
  • Despite these challenges, many African American soldiers served with distinction and bravery (Dorie Miller, Charles Thomas)

Tuskegee Airmen contributions

• The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American pilots in the United States military
  • They served in the United States Army Air Corps, the precursor to the United States Air Force
• The Tuskegee Airmen were trained at Tuskegee Army Air Field in Alabama
  • The program was created after pressure from civil rights organizations and the Black press
• The Tuskegee Airmen flew over 15,000 individual sorties in Europe and North Africa during World War II
  • They escorted bomber planes, protecting them from enemy fighter jets
• The Tuskegee Airmen had an impressive combat record, destroying over 250 enemy aircraft and earning numerous commendations and medals
  • Their success helped pave the way for the desegregation of the United States military in 1948
• Notable Tuskegee Airmen included Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who later became the first African American general in the United States Air Force, and Roscoe Brown, who shot down two German fighter jets in a single day

Double V Campaign emergence

Thompson's letter and inspiration

• In 1942, veteran and journalist James G. Thompson wrote a letter to the African American newspaper, Pittsburgh Courier, that inspired the "Double Victory" Campaign
  • Thompson urged readers to fight for a "double victory" - a victory against fascism abroad and a victory against Jim Crow segregation at home
• Thompson's letter highlighted the hypocrisy of the United States fighting against fascism and oppression overseas while maintaining a system of racial segregation and discrimination at home
  • He argued that African Americans should support the war effort but also demand equal rights and opportunities as American citizens
• The Pittsburgh Courier embraced Thompson's idea and launched the "Double V" campaign
  • The "Double V" symbol, with the "V for Victory" sign used during World War II, became a rallying cry for African Americans during the war
• The Double V Campaign gained national attention and support from other African American newspapers, civil rights organizations, and community leaders
  • It helped to link the struggle for civil rights with the fight against fascism and totalitarianism
• The Double V Campaign inspired African Americans to challenge segregation and discrimination in various aspects of American society (military, defense industries, public accommodations)
  • It laid the groundwork for the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s

G.I. Bill access

Benefits for veterans

• The G.I. Bill of 1944, also known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, was designed to provide benefits to American veterans returning from World War II
  • It was intended to be a race-neutral program that would help veterans readjust to civilian life and achieve economic stability and mobility
• The G.I. Bill provided funds for college tuition, allowing veterans to pursue higher education
  • It also offered low-cost home mortgages, making homeownership more accessible to veterans
• Low-interest business startup loans were another key benefit of the G.I. Bill
  • These loans helped veterans start their own businesses and become entrepreneurs
• The G.I. Bill benefits were available to all veterans, regardless of race, including the 1.2 million African American veterans who served in World War II
  • In theory, the G.I. Bill had the potential to provide African American veterans with new opportunities for education, homeownership, and economic advancement

Discriminatory implementation practices

• Although the G.I. Bill was a federal program, the funds were administered at the local level by states and municipalities
  • This meant that the distribution of benefits was subject to the same Jim Crow discriminatory practices that existed in many parts of the country
• In practice, African American veterans often faced significant barriers in accessing the benefits of the G.I. Bill
  • Many colleges and universities, especially in the South, remained segregated and limited the enrollment of African American students
• African American veterans also encountered discrimination when attempting to purchase homes or secure mortgages
  • Redlining practices and restrictive covenants in many cities and suburbs prevented African Americans from buying homes in certain areas, even if they qualified for the G.I. Bill's low-cost mortgages
• Banks and lending institutions often refused to provide loans to African American veterans seeking to start businesses
  • This limited their ability to take advantage of the G.I. Bill's low-interest business startup loans
• As a result of these discriminatory practices, the benefits of the G.I. Bill were disproportionately disbursed to white veterans
  • While the G.I. Bill helped many white veterans achieve economic stability and mobility, it did not have the same impact for African American veterans, who continued to face systemic barriers and inequality

Required Sources

James G. Thompson, "Should I Sacrifice to Live 'Half-American'?" Pittsburgh Courier, 1942

Thompson's letter to the Pittsburgh Courier during World War II eloquently articulated the "Double V" campaign, calling for victory against fascism abroad and racism at home. His words resonated deeply with African Americans who faced discrimination while being asked to fight for democracy overseas.

This powerful critique of American hypocrisy became a rallying cry for civil rights activists. Thompson's letter highlighted the stark contradiction between America's stated ideals and the reality of Jim Crow, helping to galvanize the Black community and lay groundwork for the post-war civil rights movement.

Summarized:

• Call for a "Double Victory" campaign
  • Quote: "If this V sign means that to those now engaged in this great conflict then let we colored Americans adopt the double VV for a double victory. The first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies from within."
  • Explanation: Thompson proposes a "Double V" campaign, advocating for victory both in the war abroad and against racial discrimination at home, linking the fight against fascism with the struggle for civil rights in America.
• Questioning the value of sacrifice without full citizenship
  • Quote: "Should I sacrifice my life to live half American?' 'Will things be better for the next generation in the peace to follow?' 'Would it be demanding too much to demand full citizenship rights in exchange for the sacrificing of my life?"
  • Explanation: Thompson grapples with the dilemma faced by African Americans: being asked to fight for a country that denies them full rights and equality, raising questions about the true meaning of American democracy.
• Belief in America's potential for true democracy
  • Quote: "America could become united as never before and become truly the home of democracy."
  • Explanation: Despite his criticisms, Thompson expresses hope and faith in America's potential to fulfill its democratic ideals, suggesting that addressing racial injustice could strengthen the nation.
• Commitment to both patriotism and civil rights
  • Quote: "In conclusion let me say that though these questions often permeate my mind, I love America and am willing to die for the America I know will someday become a reality."
  • Explanation: Thompson balances his critique with a declaration of love for America, demonstrating that his push for civil rights is rooted in patriotism and a desire to see the country live up to its ideals.

Major Charity E. Adams and Captain Mary Kearney Inspect Members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion in England, 1945

The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, an all-Black women's unit in World War II, represented a significant milestone in African American military service. Major Charity Adams, as the highest-ranking Black woman in the Army during the war, exemplified leadership and broke barriers in a segregated military environment.

This image captures a moment of Black women's empowerment and contribution to the war effort, challenging racial and gender stereotypes of the time. The 6888th's success in efficiently managing the backlog of mail for U.S. troops demonstrated the capabilities of African American women, laying groundwork for future integration and equality in the armed forces.

The Flight Instructor Staff of Tuskegee Army Airfield, Late in the Second World War, 1945

The Tuskegee Army Airfield flight instructors played a crucial role in training the first African American military aviators in U.S. history. Their dedication and expertise helped overcome racial barriers and prove that Black pilots were equally capable of flying combat missions during World War II.

These instructors were instrumental in the success of the Tuskegee Airmen, who went on to distinguish themselves in aerial combat over Europe. Their efforts not only contributed to the war effort but also challenged racial stereotypes and discrimination, paving the way for greater integration of the U.S. armed forces in the years following the war.