🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧󠁿Anglo-Saxon England Unit 10 – Late Anglo-Saxon England: Politics & Society

Key Historical Context

• Anglo-Saxon England refers to the period between the 5th and 11th centuries AD following the withdrawal of the Romans and preceding the Norman Conquest in 1066
• Characterized by the establishment of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria) that eventually unified under a single monarchy
• Influenced by the migration and settlement of Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) from continental Europe
• Experienced significant cultural, social, and political changes during this period, including the adoption of Christianity and the development of a distinct Anglo-Saxon identity
• Faced ongoing threats from Viking invasions, particularly during the 9th and 10th centuries (Danelaw)
• Witnessed the rise of notable rulers such as Alfred the Great, who defended against the Vikings and promoted learning and literacy
• Laid the foundation for the development of the English language and legal system (common law)
• Culminated in the reign of Edward the Confessor and the succession crisis that led to the Norman Conquest in 1066

Political Structure and Governance

• Anglo-Saxon England was divided into several kingdoms (Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, East Anglia) ruled by individual kings
  • Kingdoms often engaged in power struggles and warfare with one another
  • Gradual consolidation of power under the Kingdom of Wessex during the 9th and 10th centuries
• Kings held supreme authority and were responsible for maintaining law and order, defending the realm, and dispensing justice
  • Advised by a council of nobles and clergy known as the Witan
  • Succession was often determined by a combination of heredity and the approval of the Witan
• Local governance was administered through a system of shires (counties) and hundreds (subdivisions of shires)
  • Shires were overseen by ealdormen (noblemen) appointed by the king
  • Hundreds were responsible for local administration and the settlement of disputes
• Legal system based on customary law and the concept of wergild (compensation for crimes)
  • Trials were conducted through a system of compurgation (oath-taking) and ordeal (trial by combat or other means)
• Feudalism, although not as developed as in post-Norman England, began to emerge with the granting of land in exchange for military service

Social Hierarchy and Daily Life

• Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with the king at the top, followed by the nobility, clergy, and commoners
  • Nobility consisted of ealdormen (noblemen), thegns (land-owning warriors), and other high-ranking individuals
  • Clergy played a significant role in society, holding positions of influence and acting as advisors to the king
• Majority of the population were commoners, including ceorls (free peasants) and slaves
  • Ceorls had the right to own land and participate in local assemblies
  • Slaves, often captured in warfare or debt bondage, had few rights and could be bought and sold
• Rural life revolved around agriculture, with most people living in small villages or hamlets
  • Farming was the primary occupation, with crops such as wheat, barley, and vegetables being cultivated
  • Animal husbandry (cattle, sheep, pigs) was also important for meat, dairy, and wool production
• Craftsmen, such as blacksmiths, potters, and weavers, produced goods for local consumption and trade
  • Trade was conducted through a network of markets and fairs, with luxury goods being imported from the continent
• Diet consisted mainly of bread, stews, and ale, with meat being consumed more by the upper classes
• Housing was typically made of wood and thatch, with the wealthy having larger, more elaborate dwellings

Religion and the Church

• Christianity was introduced to Anglo-Saxon England by Roman missionaries in the late 6th century
  • St. Augustine of Canterbury, sent by Pope Gregory I, established the first English bishopric at Canterbury in 597 AD
  • Celtic Christianity, which had developed independently in Ireland and Scotland, also influenced the early Anglo-Saxon church
• Monasticism played a significant role in the spread and consolidation of Christianity
  • Monasteries served as centers of learning, producing illuminated manuscripts and preserving classical knowledge
  • Notable monasteries included Lindisfarne, Jarrow, and Wearmouth, which produced scholars such as the Venerable Bede
• The church held significant political and economic power, with bishops and abbots often serving as advisors to kings and holding large estates
  • Tithe system, in which one-tenth of agricultural produce was given to the church, provided a significant source of income
• Synods and church councils were held to discuss religious matters and establish church doctrine
  • Synod of Whitby (664 AD) resolved differences between Roman and Celtic Christian practices, such as the calculation of the date of Easter
• Pagan beliefs and practices, such as the veneration of natural features and the use of charms, coexisted with Christianity for some time
  • Christian missionaries often incorporated pagan sites and festivals into the new religion to facilitate conversion

Viking Invasions and Influence

• Viking raids on Anglo-Saxon England began in the late 8th century, with the attack on Lindisfarne monastery in 793 AD
  • Vikings, primarily from Denmark and Norway, were attracted by the wealth of English monasteries and settlements
  • Raids intensified throughout the 9th century, with the Vikings establishing permanent settlements and exerting political control over parts of England
• Danelaw, the area of England under Viking control, was established in the late 9th century following the Treaty of Wedmore between King Alfred of Wessex and the Viking leader Guthrum
  • Danelaw encompassed much of northern and eastern England, with the Vikings establishing their own laws and customs
  • Integration and assimilation between the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings occurred over time, with intermarriage and cultural exchange
• Viking influence on Anglo-Saxon culture and society was significant
  • Old Norse words were incorporated into the English language (sky, window, knife)
  • Place names, particularly in the Danelaw region, reflect Viking settlement (Grimsby, Whitby)
  • Scandinavian art styles, such as intricate knotwork and animal motifs, influenced Anglo-Saxon art and craftsmanship
• Anglo-Saxon resistance to Viking rule, led by figures such as King Alfred of Wessex and his descendants, eventually led to the reconquest of the Danelaw in the early 10th century
  • Burghal system, a network of fortified towns, was established to defend against Viking attacks
  • Reconquest culminated in the reign of King Athelstan, who became the first ruler of a unified English kingdom in 927 AD

Language and Literature

• Old English, the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, is the earliest form of the English language
  • Heavily influenced by Old Norse due to Viking contact and settlement
  • Written using the runic alphabet (futhorc) before the adoption of the Latin alphabet
• Anglo-Saxon literature encompasses a wide range of genres, including poetry, prose, and religious works
  • Epic poetry, such as Beowulf, celebrates heroic deeds and reflects Anglo-Saxon values of loyalty, courage, and honor
  • Elegiac poetry, such as The Wanderer and The Seafarer, expresses themes of loss, exile, and the transience of life
  • Religious poetry, such as The Dream of the Rood, explores Christian themes and symbolism
• Prose works include historical chronicles, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which records events from the 5th century to the Norman Conquest
  • Legal codes, such as those of King Alfred and King Cnut, provide insight into Anglo-Saxon law and society
  • Homilies and saints' lives, such as those by Aelfric and Wulfstan, were used for religious instruction and moral guidance
• Monastic scriptoria played a crucial role in the production and preservation of Anglo-Saxon literature
  • Illuminated manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells, showcase the artistic skill and devotion of monastic scribes
• Old English literature had a lasting impact on the development of English literature, with works such as Beowulf continuing to be studied and admired today

Art and Architecture

• Anglo-Saxon art is characterized by intricate decorative styles, often featuring interlacing patterns, animal motifs, and abstract designs
  • Influenced by Celtic, Germanic, and later Viking artistic traditions
  • Metalwork, particularly jewelry and weapons, showcases the skill of Anglo-Saxon craftsmen (Sutton Hoo treasure)
  • Illuminated manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Codex Aureus, demonstrate the fusion of artistic styles and the importance of religious texts
• Stone sculpture, including crosses and grave markers, often features religious iconography and inscriptions
  • Ruthwell Cross, an 8th-century stone cross, bears inscriptions in both Latin and Old English and depicts scenes from the life of Christ
• Anglo-Saxon architecture was primarily characterized by wooden structures, with stone being used more frequently in the later period
  • Timber halls, such as those found at Yeavering and Cheddar, served as residences for kings and nobles
  • Mead halls, such as the one described in Beowulf, were important centers of social and political life
• Church architecture initially followed the Roman basilica style, with rectangular naves and small, semi-circular apses
  • Later churches, such as All Saints' Church in Brixworth, incorporated elements of Anglo-Saxon decoration and sculpture
  • Tower-nave churches, such as St. Peter's Church in Barton-upon-Humber, became more common in the 10th and 11th centuries
• Monastic architecture, including churches, cloisters, and scriptoria, reflected the importance of monasteries as centers of learning and religious life
  • Benedictine monasteries, such as Jarrow and Monkwearmouth, were renowned for their libraries and scholarly output
• Fortified structures, such as burhs and motte-and-bailey castles, were developed in response to Viking invasions and political instability
  • Burghal system, introduced by King Alfred, provided a network of fortified towns for defense and administration

Legacy and Transition to Norman Rule

• Anglo-Saxon England laid the foundation for many aspects of English society, culture, and governance that continue to the present day
  • English language, legal system (common law), and parliamentary government have their roots in Anglo-Saxon traditions
  • Place names, surnames, and cultural practices reflect the lasting influence of Anglo-Saxon and Viking settlement
• Reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon period and the prelude to the Norman Conquest
  • Edward, who had spent much of his life in exile in Normandy, brought Norman advisors and influences to the English court
  • Succession crisis following Edward's death, with competing claims from Harold Godwinson and William of Normandy, led to the Norman Conquest
• Battle of Hastings (1066) resulted in the victory of William of Normandy and the establishment of Norman rule in England
  • William, now known as William the Conqueror, was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 at Westminster Abbey
  • Norman Conquest brought significant changes to English society, including the introduction of feudalism, the French language, and new architectural styles
• Anglo-Saxon institutions and traditions, although altered by Norman rule, continued to shape English society
  • Domesday Book, a comprehensive survey of landholding commissioned by William I, provides a detailed record of late Anglo-Saxon England
  • Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued to be maintained in some monasteries, providing a valuable historical record of the transition period
• Anglo-Saxon culture experienced a revival of interest during the English Renaissance and Reformation
  • Scholars such as Matthew Parker and Robert Bruce Cotton collected and studied Anglo-Saxon manuscripts
  • Anglo-Saxon literature, particularly Beowulf, gained renewed attention and appreciation in the 19th and 20th centuries
• Legacy of Anglo-Saxon England continues to be celebrated and studied today, with ongoing research and public interest in this formative period of English history.