🏛️Ancient Mediterranean Unit 4 – Ancient Egypt: Middle & New Kingdoms

Key Events and Timeline

• The Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE) reunited Egypt under Mentuhotep II after the First Intermediate Period
• 12th Dynasty pharaohs Amenemhat I, Senusret I, and Amenemhat III expanded trade, built irrigation projects (Faiyum Oasis), and patronized the arts
• The Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BCE) saw the Hyksos, Semitic invaders from Canaan, rule northern Egypt from Avaris
• Ahmose I (1550-1525 BCE) expelled the Hyksos and founded the 18th Dynasty, beginning the New Kingdom period (1550-1069 BCE)
• Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE) expanded Egypt's empire through military campaigns in Syria-Palestine and Nubia
• Akhenaten (1353-1336 BCE) introduced the worship of Aten, the sun disk, as the supreme deity during the Amarna Period
• Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BCE), Akhenaten's son, restored traditional polytheistic religion and moved the capital back to Thebes
• Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) of the 19th Dynasty fought the Hittites at Kadesh and built massive monuments (Abu Simbel)

Political Structure and Governance

• Egypt was ruled by divine kings called pharaohs who were believed to be incarnations of the god Horus
• Pharaohs held absolute power and were responsible for maintaining maat, the cosmic order and balance
• The vizier, appointed by the pharaoh, served as the chief administrator and oversaw the bureaucracy
• Nomarks governed the 42 provinces (nomes) of Egypt and were responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining order
  • Nomarks were often hereditary positions passed down through elite families
• Scribes, trained in writing and arithmetic, were essential to the functioning of the state bureaucracy
  • They recorded tax collections, census data, and legal documents
• The pharaoh was advised by a council of high officials and priests who helped make decisions on matters of state
• During the New Kingdom, the position of God's Wife of Amun, held by a royal woman, gained political influence

Social Hierarchy and Daily Life

• Egyptian society was stratified with the pharaoh at the top, followed by the nobility, priests, scribes, artisans, farmers, and slaves
• Nobles held high positions in government, military, and temples and were granted land estates for their service
• Priests performed religious rituals, managed temple estates, and held significant political influence
• Artisans, such as sculptors, painters, and jewelers, created works for temples, tombs, and the elite
• Farmers, the majority of the population, worked the land and paid taxes in the form of grain to the state
  • They lived in small mud-brick houses and used tools like wooden plows and sickles
• Slaves, often captives from military campaigns, worked in households, temples, and on royal building projects
• Women had more legal rights than in other ancient civilizations, could own property, and work outside the home (weavers, dancers, musicians)
• Children were valued and educated at home or in temple schools if from wealthy families

Economic Systems and Trade

• Egypt's economy was based on agriculture, with the Nile River providing fertile soil and a reliable water source
• The state controlled the distribution of grain and other essential goods through a system of granaries and treasuries
• Farmers paid taxes in the form of grain, which was used to support the state bureaucracy, military, and building projects
• During the Middle and New Kingdoms, Egypt expanded trade with neighboring regions (Nubia, Levant, Punt)
  • Traded goods included gold, ebony, ivory, incense, and exotic animals from Nubia and Punt
  • Imported cedar wood, olive oil, and wine from the Levant
• The state organized expeditions to mining regions (Sinai, Eastern Desert) for copper, turquoise, and gold
• Artisans worked in state-controlled workshops producing goods for temples, tombs, and the elite
• The introduction of the bronze improved tools and weapons, leading to increased agricultural productivity and military success

Religious Beliefs and Practices

• Ancient Egyptians practiced a polytheistic religion with a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses
• The pharaoh was believed to be a living god, the incarnation of Horus, and the intermediary between the gods and humans
• The gods were associated with natural phenomena, such as the sun (Ra), the Nile (Hapi), and fertility (Osiris and Isis)
• Temples were the center of religious life, where priests performed daily rituals and made offerings to the gods
  • Major temples included Karnak and Luxor in Thebes, dedicated to the god Amun
• The Egyptians believed in the afterlife and that the soul (ka) would continue to exist if the body was preserved through mummification
• Tombs were filled with grave goods, such as furniture, jewelry, and food, to provide for the deceased in the afterlife
• The Book of the Dead, a collection of spells and prayers, was placed in tombs to guide the soul through the underworld
• During the Amarna Period, Akhenaten promoted the worship of Aten, the sun disk, as the supreme deity
  • This religious reform was short-lived and traditional polytheism was restored under Tutankhamun

Art and Architecture

• Egyptian art and architecture were characterized by a strict adherence to style, proportion, and symbolism
• Temples were designed to resemble the mound of creation and were filled with reliefs and statues of gods and pharaohs
  • The New Kingdom saw the construction of massive temple complexes (Karnak, Luxor, Abu Simbel)
• Tombs evolved from mastabas to pyramids in the Old Kingdom and to rock-cut tombs in the New Kingdom (Valley of the Kings)
• The Great Sphinx of Giza, a limestone statue with a human head and a lion's body, was built during the Old Kingdom
• Statues of pharaohs and gods were created using idealized proportions and were often larger than life to symbolize their power
• Reliefs and paintings depicted scenes from daily life, military victories, and religious ceremonies
  • They used a combination of profile and frontal views to show the most recognizable features of a figure
• Hieroglyphs, a system of writing using pictorial symbols, were used for religious and official texts
  • Hieratic, a simplified script, was used for everyday writing on papyrus

Military Campaigns and Expansion

• The Middle Kingdom saw the expansion of Egypt's borders into Nubia and the Levant through military campaigns
• Mentuhotep II reunited Egypt and secured its southern border by conquering Nubia up to the Second Cataract
• Senusret III conducted campaigns in Nubia and established a series of fortresses to control trade and protect Egypt's southern frontier
• The New Kingdom was marked by a period of military expansion and empire-building
• Ahmose I expelled the Hyksos from Egypt and secured the country's borders
• Thutmose I and Thutmose III expanded Egypt's empire into Syria-Palestine through a series of successful military campaigns
  • They fought against the Mitanni and the Canaanite city-states to control trade routes and resources
• Ramesses II fought the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh, resulting in the world's first recorded peace treaty
• The Egyptian army was well-organized and equipped with bronze weapons, chariots, and composite bows
  • The army was divided into units based on their weapon specialization (archers, spearmen, charioteers)

Legacy and Cultural Impact

• Ancient Egyptian civilization lasted for over 3,000 years and left a lasting impact on world history and culture
• The pyramids, the Great Sphinx, and the temples of Karnak and Abu Simbel remain iconic symbols of ancient Egypt
• The Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799, was key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs and unlocking the secrets of ancient Egyptian writing
• Egyptian art and architecture influenced later cultures, such as the Greeks and Romans
  • The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BCE and wrote extensively about its culture and history
• Egyptian religious beliefs and practices, such as the concept of the afterlife and mummification, fascinated later generations
• The Library of Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BCE, became a center of learning and scholarship in the ancient world
• The study of ancient Egypt (Egyptology) has been a popular field since the 19th century, with scholars and archaeologists working to uncover the secrets of this ancient civilization
• Popular culture has been greatly influenced by ancient Egypt, with countless books, films, and video games featuring Egyptian themes and motifs (Cleopatra, mummies, pyramids)