6.2 Political Instability and Military Coups
5 min read•august 13, 2024
Political instability plagued many African nations in the 1980s and 1990s. Rooted in colonial legacies and rivalries, weak institutions and ethnic divisions fueled unrest. Economic challenges, power imbalances, and authoritarian rule further stoked tensions.
Military coups became a common response to political grievances and economic discontent. While often justified as necessary interventions, coups typically worsened instability. They hindered development, eroded democratic institutions, and deepened social divisions across the continent.
Political Instability in Africa
Legacy of Colonialism and Cold War Rivalry
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- Political instability in many African countries stemmed from the legacy of colonialism, which left behind weak institutions, arbitrary borders, and deep ethnic and regional divisions
- The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union fueled proxy conflicts and undermined political stability in many African countries as each side supported rival factions
- The superpowers prioritized their ideological and strategic interests over the promotion of stability and democracy in Africa, contributing to the persistence of political instability in many countries (Angola, Mozambique)
Economic and Political Factors
- Economic challenges contributed to social unrest and political instability
- High levels of poverty, inequality, and unemployment created discontent among the population and fueled instability (Nigeria, South Africa)
- The concentration of power in the hands of a small elite, often along ethnic or regional lines, led to feelings of marginalization and resentment among excluded groups
- This power imbalance exacerbated tensions and increased the likelihood of conflict (, )
- The lack of democratic traditions and the suppression of political opposition by authoritarian leaders fueled discontent and instability
- Many African leaders maintained their grip on power through repressive means, stifling dissent and undermining democratic institutions (, )
- The militarization of politics, with the armed forces playing a significant role in political affairs, increased the likelihood of coups and other forms of military intervention
- In some cases, the military viewed itself as the only institution capable of maintaining order and stability, leading to frequent interventions in civilian politics (Nigeria, Ghana)
Causes and Consequences of Coups
Motivations and Justifications for Coups
- Military coups were often motivated by a combination of factors, including political grievances, economic discontent, and personal ambition among military officers
- Officers may have felt that civilian governments were corrupt, ineffective, or unable to maintain order, justifying their intervention (Burkina Faso, Niger)
- In many cases, coups were justified as necessary interventions to address corruption, mismanagement, or other failings of civilian governments
- However, these justifications often masked underlying power struggles and personal ambitions within the military (, )
Impact of Coups on Political and Economic Stability
- Coups often led to the suspension of constitutional rule and the imposition of military dictatorships, which frequently proved to be as corrupt and ineffective as the civilian governments they replaced
- Military regimes often lacked the expertise and legitimacy to effectively govern, leading to further instability and economic decline (, )
- The frequent occurrence of coups created a climate of political uncertainty and instability, discouraging investment and economic development
- Investors were reluctant to commit resources to countries with a high risk of political upheaval, hindering economic growth (Guinea, )
- Coups and military rule often led to human rights abuses, including the suppression of political dissent, arbitrary detention, and extrajudicial killings
- These abuses further eroded public trust in government institutions and fueled resentment and resistance (, Uganda under Amin)
- The cycle of coups and counter-coups in many African countries undermined the development of stable democratic institutions and civil society
- Frequent changes in government made it difficult to establish lasting reforms and build a culture of democratic participation (Benin, Niger)
Impact of Instability on Development
Economic and Social Consequences
- Political instability discouraged foreign investment and made it difficult for governments to implement long-term economic development plans
- Investors were reluctant to commit resources to countries with a high risk of political upheaval, hindering economic growth (Democratic Republic of Congo, )
- The frequent changes in government and policy priorities associated with political instability created an unpredictable business environment, hindering private sector growth
- Businesses struggled to plan for the future and invest in expansion when the political landscape was constantly shifting (, )
- Political violence and civil unrest disrupted economic activities, damaged infrastructure, and displaced populations, setting back development efforts
- Conflict and instability destroyed physical capital, disrupted trade, and forced people to flee their homes, undermining economic progress (Liberia, Sierra Leone)
- The diversion of resources towards military spending and security concerns in politically unstable countries came at the expense of investments in education, healthcare, and other social services
- Governments prioritized short-term stability over long-term development, neglecting the needs of their populations (, )
Impact on Social Cohesion and National Identity
- Political instability exacerbated social divisions along ethnic, regional, or religious lines, as rival groups competed for power and resources
- In some cases, political leaders exploited these divisions to mobilize support, deepening societal fractures (, )
- The erosion of social cohesion and trust in unstable political environments made it difficult to build a sense of national identity and common purpose
- Frequent changes in government and the absence of stable institutions hindered the development of a shared civic culture (Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo)
External Actors and Stability
Influence of Former Colonial Powers and International Institutions
- Former colonial powers, such as France and the United Kingdom, maintained significant political, economic, and military ties with their former colonies, sometimes intervening to support or undermine particular leaders or factions
- These interventions often prioritized the interests of the former colonial powers over the stability and well-being of African nations (, Chad)
- International financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, promoted economic reforms and structural adjustment programs in African countries, which sometimes had destabilizing social and political consequences
- These programs often required deep cuts in social spending and public sector employment, fueling discontent and unrest (, )
Regional Organizations and the Global War on Terror
- Regional organizations, such as the and the Economic Community of West African States (), played an increasing role in promoting political stability and conflict resolution in Africa, through diplomatic initiatives and peacekeeping operations
- These organizations sought to mediate conflicts, support democratic transitions, and promote regional cooperation (Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire)
- The rise of international terrorism and the global "War on Terror" in the early 21st century led to increased military and security cooperation between African governments and external actors, with mixed implications for political stability
- While this cooperation helped to combat terrorist threats, it also risked empowering authoritarian regimes and militarizing political conflicts (Mali, Somalia)
Key Terms to Review (39)
African Union: The African Union (AU) is a continental organization established in 2001, aimed at promoting unity, cooperation, and development among African nations. It plays a significant role in addressing political, social, and economic issues across the continent, often stepping in to mediate conflicts and promote peace.
Arab Spring: The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests and uprisings that began in late 2010 and spread across the Arab world, particularly in North Africa and the Middle East. It marked a significant movement towards political reform, democracy, and social justice, leading to varying degrees of change in different countries, with some resulting in regime changes while others faced violent repression.
Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the concentration of power in a single authority or a small group, often leading to limited political freedoms and civil liberties. In such systems, the state exerts significant control over many aspects of life, including political, social, and economic domains. This often manifests in forms like military coups, where the existing government is overthrown, or through mechanisms that stifle democratic reforms and nation-building efforts.
Burundi: Burundi is a small landlocked country in East Africa, bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east, and Lake Tanganyika to the west. The country has a history marked by significant political instability, including ethnic tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi groups, which have led to a series of military coups and civil wars over the years.
Chad: Chad is a landlocked country in North-Central Africa, bordered by Libya, Sudan, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Niger. It has experienced significant political instability and military coups since gaining independence from France in 1960, reflecting a broader trend of governance challenges in the region.
Cold War: The Cold War was a prolonged period of political and military tension between the Western bloc, led by the United States, and the Eastern bloc, led by the Soviet Union, from the end of World War II in 1947 until the early 1990s. This rivalry influenced global alliances and conflicts, leading to significant geopolitical shifts and impacting nations worldwide, including those in Africa.
Colonial legacy: Colonial legacy refers to the lasting impacts and influences of colonial rule on former colonies, shaping their political, economic, social, and cultural landscapes. This term encompasses a range of issues such as governance challenges, ethnic tensions, and economic disparities that arise from the historical context of colonialism, affecting the trajectories of post-colonial nations.
Côte d'ivoire: Côte d'Ivoire, also known as Ivory Coast, is a country located in West Africa, known for its rich cultural diversity and significant economic resources, particularly in cocoa and coffee production. It has experienced periods of political instability and military coups since gaining independence from France in 1960, deeply impacting its political landscape and society.
Decolonization: Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies gain independence from colonial powers, leading to the establishment of sovereign nations. This transformative movement reshaped global politics and social structures, particularly in Africa, where a surge of national consciousness and resistance against colonial rule emerged, influenced by broader movements for self-determination and international support post-World War II.
Democratic backsliding: Democratic backsliding refers to the gradual decline in the quality of democracy, where established democratic norms and practices erode, leading to authoritarianism or a weakened rule of law. This process often involves the undermining of institutions, suppression of dissent, and the curtailment of civil liberties, contributing to political instability and challenges to governance.
Democratic Republic of the Congo: The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a large country in Central Africa that has been plagued by political instability and military coups since gaining independence from Belgium in 1960. The DRC's vast natural resources, including minerals like gold and coltan, have fueled conflict and power struggles among various factions, contributing to its ongoing challenges in governance and security.
ECOWAS: The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional political and economic union established in 1975 to promote economic integration, political stability, and cooperation among its member countries in West Africa. ECOWAS aims to foster economic development and regional stability while addressing challenges such as political instability, military coups, and the need for greater regional integration.
Egyptian Coup of 1952: The Egyptian Coup of 1952 was a military coup that led to the overthrow of King Farouk and marked the beginning of a republic in Egypt. This event was driven by widespread dissatisfaction with the monarchy, including issues like corruption, political instability, and economic challenges, ultimately reflecting broader trends of military intervention in governance across the region.
Ethiopia under the Derg: Ethiopia under the Derg refers to the period from 1974 to 1991 when a Marxist military junta, known as the Derg, ruled Ethiopia after overthrowing Emperor Haile Selassie. This era was marked by political repression, civil war, and significant social and economic changes, reflecting broader trends of political instability and military coups in Africa during the late 20th century.
Ethnic conflict: Ethnic conflict refers to disputes and violence between different ethnic groups, often stemming from historical grievances, competition for resources, or struggles for power and autonomy. These conflicts can lead to significant political instability, especially in multi-ethnic states where different groups vie for recognition and rights. Ethnic conflict often intertwines with issues of national identity, governance, and socio-economic challenges.
Failed state: A failed state is a political entity that is unable to provide basic government functions such as security, law enforcement, and basic public services to its citizens. This lack of effective governance often leads to widespread corruption, civil unrest, and an inability to maintain control over its territory, which can result in military coups or political instability as various groups vie for power.
Gabon: Gabon is a country located on the west coast of Central Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Equatorial Guinea, and Cameroon. It has a history marked by colonialism and political instability, including military coups that have influenced its governance and social structure.
Ghana under Acheampong: Ghana under Acheampong refers to the period of military rule from 1972 to 1978, when General Ignatius Kutu Acheampong led the country after a coup d'état. His regime is marked by significant political instability, economic challenges, and social unrest, highlighting the broader context of military coups in post-colonial Africa.
Kenya: Kenya is a country located in East Africa, known for its diverse landscapes, wildlife, and rich cultural heritage. The nation has experienced significant political instability and military coups since gaining independence in 1963, influencing its governance and social dynamics.
Liberia: Liberia is a West African country founded in the early 19th century by freed American slaves, with its capital, Monrovia, named after U.S. President James Monroe. This unique origin set Liberia apart as an early example of an African state attempting to establish governance and identity in the context of both indigenous cultures and colonial influences, facing significant challenges like political instability and military coups throughout its history.
Madagascar: Madagascar is an island nation located off the southeastern coast of Africa, known for its unique biodiversity and distinct cultural heritage. The political landscape of Madagascar has been marked by periods of instability and military coups that have shaped its governance and social fabric throughout its modern history.
Mali: Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, known for its rich history and cultural heritage, especially during the Mali Empire, which thrived from the 13th to 16th centuries. The region has faced various challenges related to political instability and military coups that have affected its governance and social cohesion.
Muammar Gaddafi: Muammar Gaddafi was a Libyan revolutionary and political leader who ruled Libya from 1969 until his overthrow in 2011. He is known for his unconventional leadership style and the establishment of a unique political ideology known as the Third International Theory, which aimed to create a form of socialism tailored to the Libyan context. Gaddafi's reign was marked by significant political instability and military actions, and his governance raised numerous challenges in nation-building and governance within Libya.
Neocolonialism: Neocolonialism refers to the practice where a former colonial power maintains indirect control over a country, especially in terms of economic, political, and cultural influence, even after formal decolonization has occurred. This ongoing dominance can manifest through multinational corporations, foreign aid, and international financial institutions, which can perpetuate a cycle of dependency rather than fostering true independence.
Nigeria under Abacha: Nigeria under Abacha refers to the period from 1993 to 1998 when General Sani Abacha ruled Nigeria as a military dictator following a coup. This era is characterized by severe human rights abuses, political repression, and corruption, which contributed to ongoing political instability and military coups in the country.
Nigerian Coup of 1966: The Nigerian Coup of 1966 was a military takeover that occurred on January 15, 1966, when a group of young army officers overthrew the civilian government led by Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. This coup marked a significant turning point in Nigeria's political history, leading to a series of military regimes and further coups, illustrating the deep political instability and the role of the military in governance.
Pan-Africanism: Pan-Africanism is a global movement aimed at strengthening bonds among people of African descent and promoting solidarity, unity, and self-determination for African nations. This ideology emphasizes the common heritage and experiences of African people, fostering a sense of collective identity that transcends national borders.
Political corruption: Political corruption refers to the abuse of power by government officials for illegitimate private gain. This often involves activities such as bribery, embezzlement, and nepotism, which undermine democratic processes and contribute to instability in governance. In many cases, political corruption can create an environment ripe for political unrest and military coups, as citizens lose trust in their leaders and institutions.
Robert Mugabe: Robert Mugabe was a Zimbabwean revolutionary leader who served as Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 and then as President from 1987 to 2017. He is known for his role in the liberation struggle against colonial rule, but his later years in power were marked by political repression, economic decline, and controversial land reform policies that led to significant instability in Zimbabwe.
Rwanda: Rwanda is a small, landlocked country in East Africa, known for its hilly terrain and diverse wildlife. It gained global attention due to the catastrophic genocide in 1994, where approximately 800,000 people, primarily Tutsis and moderate Hutus, were killed in just 100 days. The political instability and social divisions that led to the genocide are crucial elements of Rwanda's history and highlight the consequences of military coups and power struggles.
Senegal: Senegal is a West African nation known for its rich cultural heritage and significant historical role as a center for trade and colonialism. It gained independence from France in 1960 and has since been characterized by a relatively stable political environment compared to many of its neighbors, although it has faced periods of political instability and military coups that have shaped its modern history.
Sierra Leone: Sierra Leone is a country located on the west coast of Africa, known for its rich history as a site for early European trading and later as a colony established for freed slaves. Its historical significance is tied to early European exploration, the effects of the Berlin Conference in shaping colonial territories, and its struggles with political instability and military coups in the post-colonial period.
Somalia: Somalia is a country located in the Horn of Africa, known for its strategic location along the Gulf of Aden and its historical ties to trade and culture. Over the years, Somalia has faced significant challenges related to political instability, military coups, and civil war, which have deeply impacted its governance and social fabric.
Sudan: Sudan is a country located in Northeast Africa, known for its rich history and cultural diversity. Since gaining independence from British-Egyptian rule in 1956, Sudan has faced significant political instability characterized by military coups, civil wars, and ongoing conflicts, which have profoundly affected its governance and social fabric.
Transitional Government: A transitional government is a temporary political structure set up to manage the transition from one form of governance to another, often following a period of conflict, political instability, or a change in leadership. These governments aim to stabilize the nation, implement reforms, and prepare for elections or a return to a more permanent government system. Transitional governments are often seen in the context of political crises and military coups, where they may be established by military leaders or revolutionary groups to maintain order during times of upheaval.
Uganda Under Amin: Uganda under Idi Amin refers to the period of his rule from 1971 to 1979, marked by widespread human rights abuses, political repression, and economic turmoil. Amin's regime was characterized by a series of military coups and a culture of fear, contributing to Uganda's political instability during this time and impacting the nation’s social fabric.
Zaire under Mobutu: Zaire, known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was ruled by Mobutu Sese Seko from 1965 until 1997. His regime is characterized by authoritarianism, political instability, and widespread corruption, which were common features of military coups in Africa during that period.
Zambia: Zambia is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, known for its diverse wildlife and rich mineral resources. Following independence from British colonial rule in 1964, Zambia faced significant political and economic challenges, including political instability and military coups, as well as the struggle for economic development and the role of the state in managing its resources and economy.
Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, known for its rich cultural history and significant mineral resources. Over the years, Zimbabwe has faced political instability, marked by military coups and economic challenges that have shaped its contemporary history and governance.